The Cultural Heritage of Montilla and the Printing Press since the Modern Age: Its Evolution and Relationship with Graphic Engineering Boosting the SDGs

Abstract

On the 550th anniversary of the introduction of the printing press to Spain, it is planned to review this art. Through a literature review, we studied how the printing press has contributed to the dissemination and preservation of cultural and industrial heritage, which are key for knowledge dissemination. The main objective of this study was to characterize the Spanish printing press of the 17th century through the analysis of an etching by Stradanus, relating it to the founding of the first typographic workshops in the rural Andalusian territory, and studying, for the first time, the specific case of Montilla. No scientific research has been carried out so far on this specific case. It was a region of utmost importance in Andalusia at the time due to its relations with the Spanish monarchy. The development of the printing press from inception until today is also analyzed to study the evolution of this type of industry in relation to the times. The printing press was key for the dissemination of culture and knowledge in the Modern Age. It was used to produce books, documents, and etchings, which are key elements for the dissemination of knowledge and the preservation of human heritage. This research has allowed us to comprehend and analyze, for the first time, the process of establishing the printing press in the case of Montilla coinciding with the 450th anniversary of the founding of the first printing press in Spain. This manuscript contributes to the achievement of some of the objectives of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), protecting and disseminating the heritage of the typographic industry in Montilla-Moriles.

1. Introduction

The ancient printing heritage, marked by the invention of technologies such as the Gutenberg press, contributes to sustainable development goals by exemplifying the power of knowledge dissemination, fostering education, and promoting cultural exchange, thus laying the foundation for inclusive and equitable societies. Indeed, in the framework of the 2030 agenda for sustainable development, it is target 4 of SDG 11, “Sustainable Cities and Communities”, which is based on improving efforts to protect and save cultural and natural heritage.

According to physician D. Francisco Antonio Tenllado and Mangas, founder of the Tenllado Printing Press, in Lucena (Córdoba) in 1860, “The printing press avoids all the inconveniencies of the communication means known to humans. It is not ambiguous or as perishable as signs; it preserves events for history, which cannot be achieved by language; it is understandable even for the inept reader; in prints, it is all about knowing how to read old letters; ink is a varnish that time does not erase, and the directors, typesetters and correctors are trained people who check and revise the editions many times before publishing them. The printing press is the best means to communicate ideas to others due to its promptness, low cost and instantaneous reproduction of copies” [1].

Since the origin and throughout the evolution of the printing press, different authors have analyzed its role, which was key to the cultural development of humans, as well as its relationship with graphic engineering. The history of the Modern Age is strongly related to print culture [2]. The invention of Gutenberg’s printing press of moveable types was key here as a consequence of the development of literacy, although its origin is much older. Thus, for the realization of the present study, it was deemed necessary to conduct a literature review to contextualize its objective: the analysis of the birth and expansion of this science in a rural context, namely, in Central Andalusia, which is an important Spanish region.

The aim was to characterize the Spanish printing press of the 17th century by studying an etching by Stradanus, who was a renowned Flemish artist in the court of Cosimo I de’ Medici, analyzing the establishment of the first typographic workshops in the rural Andalusian territory and its evolution until the 21st century through a case study conducted on the city of Montilla. The novelty provided by this research publishes and characterizes, for the first time, the beginnings of an industrial sector, such as the printing press, thanks to the interpretations of the etchings of an artist. The uniqueness of this study also lies in the application of this methodology for the case study of the typographic industry in a rural environment in the city of Montilla (Córdoba).

2. Literature Review

2.1. Precursors and History of the Printing Press

Figure 1 shows some relevant facts regarding the precursors and precedents of the printing press.

In Sumer (present-day Iraq) in the year 3100 B.C., the cuneiform writing system emerged [3,4]. The precursor of the modern press was xylography, which was discovered in China in the year 868 A.D. [5].

In the Middle Ages, knowledge was transmitted through handwritten copies manufactured in monasteries. The birth of universities and the social change in the Modern Age entailed a demand for identically reproduced texts [6]. In the first half of the 15th century, different attempts were made to satisfy this demand. In this context, Gutenberg developed the printing press of moveable types. It was a wooden press, whose machinery was similar to that of wine presses, in which typographic letters made of cast metal soaked in fat were pressed [7]. Gutenberg’s Latin Bible marked a turning point. It was the first book printed in Europe using a printing press with metal moveable types. It is estimated that 180 and 45 copies were manufactured in paper and vellum, respectively [8]. The art of printing was born, which is mentioned by Cervantes in his famous book Don Quixote de la Mancha [9], achieving a greater dissemination of culture through written texts, thereby increasing the production of documents and expanding the reading public [10,11].

2.2. The Printing Press in Spain and Its Expansion throughout the New World

Gutenberg’s invention spread quickly throughout Europe despite the Islamic opposition that weakened its progress as well as innovation in this way of communicating. Consensus has not been reached to date on where the first printing press was installed in Spain. Some authors date it to 1472 [12,13], whereas others date it to 1473 [7]. Studies assert that the first printing presses appeared in Barcelona, and then others appeared in Madrid, subsequently spreading throughout the Iberian Peninsula [7,12,13]. According to the literature, the first printed work in Spain was El Sinodal de Aguilafuente, printed in 1472 [14], although several authors, such as Viñes, Serra, and Clair, disagree with this statement. The arrival of German printers in the last decade of the 16th century constituted an inflection point for the spread of the printing press in Spain. In its inception, this art was transmitted verbally, and different treatises have been published in this respect [15,16]. The first of these documents is a complete manual of the printing press, made by renowned printer Joaquín Ibarra, regent of the Kingdom’s Company of Printers and Booksellers. The second document is a very specific and simple treatise for typesetters. Both documents were classic works for Spanish printers of the 19th and 20th century.

The evolution of the printing press in Spain cannot be understood without the protection of the Spanish Crown at different moments of history. The first law in this regard was enacted by the Catholic Kings on 8 July 1502: the Procedures that must precede the printing and sale of books of the kingdom, and for the course of [17]. Carlos III, the “Father of Letters and protector of the arts”, granted important privileges to printers [4], facilitating a reemergence of typography. During the reign of Carlos IV, the development of the periodic press via the printing press was favored [4,15,16,17,18,19]. With the discovery of America, the printing press was introduced to the New World [12]. In fact, in the City of Mexico alone, Morán Reyes located over thirty printers in the 17th century [20]. This rapid expansion led to the development of legislation for the regulation of this art.

2.3. The Arrival of the Printing Press in Andalusia

The first evidence of the printing press in Seville dates to 1470–1480, relating to Jacobo Cromberger, trader and precursor of one of the most important family lines of printers of the 16th century [21,22]. It rapidly spread throughout Andalusia, mainly in Granada and Córdoba [12]. Valdenebro studied the evolution of the printing press in Córdoba [23], highlighting the workshops of Juan Bautista Escudero (1556–1577), Simón Carpintero (1561), Gabriel Ramos Bejarano (1585–1609), Diego Galván (1588–1595), and Francisco de Cea Tesa (1588–1620).

Ramírez de Arellano exchanged some letters with important people in Córdoba about local printing presses between 1888 and 1889. They were published in “Diario de Córdoba” and in “Gacetilla del Comercio de Córdoba” and were gathered in a volume held in the Old Repository of the University of Seville [24]. Some of these letters were exchanged with Montillian citizen Dámaso Delgado, who made use of documents from his private library and texts of Morte Molina. The study of Valdenebro is the most complete work published to date about the beginning of the use of the printing press in Córdoba. A recent study proposed a reinterpretation in this respect, refuting the relationship between the establishment of the printing press in Córdoba and the influence of the Fellowship of Jesus and relating it to the sponsorship of Juan de Córdoba, abbot of Rute, along with editor Alejo Cardeña (the bishopric) and the incumbents of the church [25].

This article is a tribute to the printing press in Montilla (Central Andalusia), celebrating the 4th centenary of its appearance in this city. Montilla is well known for its wine-making and agro-food industry, but no scientific studies have been conducted to date about its typographic industry.

2.4. From the Industrial Revolution to the Present Time: Technical Improvements of the Printing Press

With the arrival of the Industrial Revolution, the manual printing press was replaced by the mechanical printing press. Lithography appeared, ushering in the reproduction of colored illustrations, stamps, posters, etc. In 1886, linotype allowed for the composition of text from a keyboard and the automatic fusion of a block line. The works of Gillot led to the appearance of new photomechanical techniques. Along with his son Charles, he made photography printing possible [26]. In 1800, Lord Stanhope created a cast-iron press that was named after him. It was a revolutionary invention, and it spread throughout Europe and America [4,27,28]. This promoted literary production, reducing the price of books and increasing their accessibility.

In 1875, Englishman Robert Barclay developed a device made of tin for printing on paper; it was later improved by Ira Washington Rubel circa 1903. Thus, offset printing emerged, which is considered the second revolution of the printing press. It is a form of indirect printing, wherein the printing is not carried out directly on the paper but through rubber rollers. This substantially improved printing quality [29,30].

After the Second World War, the printing press underwent a new evolution. A great demand for printed material emerged, and the existing techniques were insufficient. The invention of the computer gave rise to the phototypesetter in the 1950s, which sparked a revolution regarding the production rate of texts. It was widely used in the 1970s and 1980s. With the generalization of the use of personal computers and inkjet printers, a new revolution began [31].

In 1982, Lamport developed the LaTeX v1.0 software product, which is widely used nowadays, especially for the production of scientific and technical documents, due to its high printing quality [32,33]. In the last decade of the 20th century, two relevant events occurred. The first of these events was the invention of the digital printer, known as indigo, which allowed the general public to obtain quality prints in a short time. The second event was the creation of the XML and LaTeX languages, which, along with digital printing, allowed intermediate users to produce their own electronic books in ePub format [34,35,36].

Nowadays, 3D printing is widely used. In fact, recent studies report its application in educational centers [37,38,39,40,41,42] and in the preservation of cultural heritage using photogrammetric techniques and laser scanning, among other methods. The use of augmented reality is a good way of creating and integrating information from a purely analogue medium, enriching the context and providing the user with a unique experience that facilitates the teaching–learning process [43].

The printing press undoubtedly facilitated access to information for all citizens. The printing and dissemination of copies spread knowledge to practically all parts of the world. This meant the creation of libraries, constituting safeguards and the future of information storage and access. There has been a change in this system, which is currently tending more and more toward digitization. It is in this regard wherein it is worth asking if the printing press as we know it has a future.

All this evolution in the art of printing, along with the globalization process that has transpired in the last few decades, has sparked a revolution in the editorial industry. Thus, despite the increase in the number of publications, the number of printed copies [44,45,46], as well as sales, has decreased considerably in favor of digital publishing, as is the case for the written press. For example, in Spain, Magadán [44,45] observed a 25% decrease in the editorial market in the last few years. Hulten [46] analyzed the reconversion of traditional printing to digital printing through the study of five printing companies in Sweden, concluding that an important investment in machinery is necessary, which has a shorter useful life compared to old printing presses. If the printers of the 21st century are to prevail over time, their offer of products must be modified, combining the traditional business model with the new digital model. This is where a new concept emerges: nanography. It consists in the application of nanotechnology to digital printing to modify the characteristics of pigments. The results improve exponentially, allowing the user to print in any material and favoring the care for the environment [47].

Following Anderson’s long tail theory, we agree that the digitization of the market reduces the physical printing of copies, also reducing transportation or storage costs. On the contrary, this digitization means that printed resources reach more users and that they can access the information practically at any time and in any place.

In addition, projects involving the digitization of old works in archives and libraries make it easier for researchers from anywhere in the world to access copies without having to travel. This technique also plays a fundamental role in the conservation of these works, circumventing their deterioration [48].

3. Methodology and Materials

To carry out this research study, we performed a scientific literature review on the emergence and evolution of the printing press as well as a thorough analysis of different etchings depicting printing press workshops that supported this investigation.

Among these etchings, it is worth highlighting the first known etching of this sort, i.e., the Danse macabre, made by Mathias Huss in 1499. In addition, it is also important to mention those made by Durero, Merian (1642), and Amman (1870), as well as the Impressio Librorum by Stradanus (circa 1600). This last work is one of the twenty-four prints made by this Flemish artist about the great technological and geographic discoveries of the Modern Age, within his famous work entitled Nova Reperta [49]. This work shows a printing press workshop of the early 17th century, with details on the tools and the layout of the workshop. This methodology of etching interpretation applied to the knowledge of old industrial processes was established by researchers such as Montes Balado [50,51], who studied the technological evolution of olive presses through the etchings of Stradanus. In turn, Markey [52] also analyzed the work of this Flemish artist. The novelty of this investigation is that, from the analysis of an etching about a printing press workshop and based on the scientific literature and archive documents analyzed, the origins of the art of printing are highlighted, along with its evolution up to the present time.

Subsequently, we conducted a thorough search in archives to study and document the origin and evolution of the printing press in the 17th century in a rural territory, specifically in the city of Montilla (Córdoba), and its evolution over the centuries. The starting point was the documentation found in the Historical Archive of Notary Protocols of Montilla, in the Biblioteca Manuel Ruiz Luque Foundation, and in the private archive of the Tenllado family. The analysis of different old treatises about the art of printing [4,15,16,19,23,24,49] was fundamental for this study, as was a literature review on this subject.

During the documentation work in the mentioned archives, we found that the documents were scattered, unorganized, and unclassified. We started by clearly establishing the goals and research criteria in order to properly analyze and organize the information found. These research criteria provoked us to search for relevant documents related to the objective of the study and assess the status of the sources for the analysis and treatment of the information contained therein. Then, the collected information was synthesized, which allowed the establishment of some conclusions, as well as future research lines.

4. Results and Discussion

4.1. Approximation to a Typographic Workshop of the 17th Century through the Etching of Stradanus

Before addressing the arrival of the printing press in Montilla, we firstly describe a typographic workshop of the 17th century through an etching made by Stradanus (Figure 2) entitled Impressio Librorum. This is one of the twenty-four etchings that Florentine citizen Luigi Alamanni ordered from Stradanus about the great technological and geographic discoveries of that time gathered in the work entitled Nova Reperta [49].

This etching by Stradanus helps us to understand how the first Montillian typographic workshops may have been. It does not show the basic tools of these workshops, apart from boxes and the press; thus, we proceeded to analyze them within the context of this work.

As previously indicated, the first etching about the printing press was made by Huss. This etching represents, in a simple manner, a printing press and a library, where death, depicted by three skeletons, attacks its workers for their sinful activities. It is also worth pointing out an etching made by Durero, which represents a presser printing texts in a wooden press, and the etchings of Jost Amman (1870), which accompany the poems of Hans Sachs in this treatise entitled The book of trades (Sämtliche Fabeln und Schwänke). They all show this type of establishment, although none of them have the detail level of Stradanus.

As master printers used to say, in a printing press workshop, there are three characteristics that have to be met: order, economy, and precision. Order facilitated the layout of the workshop, the setting of the materials, and the realization of the work; economy was related to the economic organization and management of the workshop; and precision determined the tools and materials required for the activity performed in the workshop. Printing press workshops were usually small family businesses set up in the homes of the printers or managers of the workshops, and they were organized in a way that allowed needs to be satisfied as they appeared.

Figure 2 represents typesetters on the left. They are selecting the types of wooden boxes with which the texts will be made. These wooden boxes were kept in the printer’s cabinet (Figure 3a), i.e., a piece of furniture where the types were ordered in different compartments (Figure 3b). Each drawer was labelled with the type-model and size that it contained. The models to organize the types differed depending on the country (Spain, Greece, France, Palestine, etc.). Figure 3c shows the Spanish type-model. It was restored around the year 1840, and it gathers in a single box the traditional “high box” and “low box” [15]. The upper part of the printer’s cabinet is tilted in order to hold the types while working.

The detail of the boxes in which Stradanus’s typesetters are selecting the types, compared to that in Figure 3b or to the different box model types, is not precise. These boxes do not contain enough compartments to hold the types required for the composition.

These printer’s cabinets contained the types (Figure 4) and were first made of wood (box, holm oak, or pear tree) [15]; later models were made of tin and lead with zinc or lead and antimony. At the top, they had a letter or symbol engraved or specularly inverted. There were different varieties of printer’s cabinets made of different materials. They were fashioned in different sizes depending on the measurement unit of the printing press, known as the point (one point was equal to 0.350 mm, and twelve points were equivalent to one cicero).

Typesetters operated in the brightest area of the workshop, i.e., under windows, with direct lighting, although avoiding reflections from the sunlight. Interestingly, they are depicted in a sitting position. They usually worked standing, over the tilted board of the printer’s cabinet. In fact, behind them, there is another typesetter sitting on a cushion, bearing a dagger and a more sophisticated hat. This typesetter could be of a higher rank (e.g., a fitter or sorter), or he may be the son of the printer and learning the profession. In the wall in front of him, there is a paper with the text to be composed.

Using tweezers (Figure 5c), they picked up the types, although the etching does not show this aspect of the job. The typesetters placed them on the composer (Figure 6a), which was a long bar that was initially made of wood and was later manufactured with metal (iron or bronze). On one side, it had a fixed end, and on the other side, it had a mobile end with a holder, which helped to determine the length of the line. There were different kinds of composers, depending on whether they had the capacity for one, four, or eight lines.

As the lines were composed, they were placed in the gallery and then in the galley (Figure 6b,c), where the paddles with the composers were introduced. These instruments are not depicted in Figure 2 due to the positioning of the bodies of the typesetters, since the former would be found between the type and the typesetter.

The gallery was a wooden board or metal plank with two bars, one on the right and the other on the lower part, forming a right angle. The galley was a zinc plank with bars on three sides. After being thus equipped, the gallery and galley were bound with hemp rope (Figure 5c) and fitted with a hammer and a wooden block (i.e., a drum) (Figure 5a) to level and balance the types; this action was known as palming [51]. The planks with the composed text were placed on the molds (Figure 5c), where the composed lines were bound, locked, and fitted with keys (Figure 5d). Then, the text was ready for printing, for which it was coated with ink. This was initially performed using inkpads made of skin, and then rollers were used later on. Thus, the ink was well distributed so that all the planes (the number of fitted lines that made up a page) were equally coated with it. Brushes (Figure 5b) were used to clean the molds and the types. These brushes were strong, as they were made of boar hair.

To print images or make etchings, planks and etching plates were used. These were initially made of wood; later, they were composed of zinc, copper, lead, and ultimately plastic.

Some of the typical measurement devices used in the printing press workshop were a typo-meter (Figure 5e), which was a metal ruler graded by ciceros and points that was used to measure the material used in the printing press; a noniotypometer (a calibrator that measured up to 60 ciceros in ciceros and points); and a graphimeter (a small round instrument that was widely used in printing tests) [15,53].

The materials and tools of the printing press have varied and evolved over the centuries. Moreover, printers used to have different machines, notable among which, in addition to the printing press itself, is a saber or guillotine shear used to cut paper and a bookbinding press. The first ones were made of wood, and then, in the 19th century, foundry machines appeared. Other fundamental elements were paper and ink. With the invention of Gutenberg’s press, a new kind of ink was developed from varnish and dyes, mainly in black and red. The evolution in the manufacture technique with both typographic raw materials is very extensive and interesting, and it has been thoroughly studied. For example, in the 18th–19th century in Spain, paper was soaked in glue and white paste, making sure it contained little lime, which was used for whitening the paper. It was ensured that its tone was not too white in order to make reading comfortable [4,54]. Each ream weighted between 11 and 12 pounds (the “ream” is a traditional measurement unit used to count paper, and it is equivalent to 500 folded sheets) [15]. In the Netherlands and Italy, a light blue color was applied to it, making it more consistent and heavier [4,54].

Upon analyzing the printing process, it can be observed that a Spanish typesetter was required to know how to read and write correctly in Spanish and Latin [4]. Their work was divided into three parts (Figure 7): composition, distribution, and correction. They had to know exactly which box model to use, being able to distinguish some types that could easily be mistaken, such as n from u, d from p, and b from q.

Composition refers to the creation of the text in the composer (Figure 6a), which was then placed in the press for printing. The composer was placed in the ais, which was a wooden sliding shelf located next to the press; a fixed wooden table called a bench was also used. The task that required the most order in the workshop was the distribution of the letters. This consisted of placing each of the types in their respective boxes, according to the distribution system that was established in the workshop. The last task, i.e., correction, was known by many as “the soul of the printing press”. The first tests were corrected in the galley (Figure 6a,b), unbinding the types and making the necessary corrections. Then, the typesetter fitted the text, fulfilling the duties of what would later be the job of the fitter or sorter. This was a trained typesetter to whom the manager assigned the task of fitting and correcting the works to subsequently return them to the composer.

These jobs are depicted on the left side of the etching by Stradanus (Figure 2). The corrector is depicted behind the second composer, sitting on a cushion and, in the background, standing and wearing glasses. Interestingly, he is not sitting at the desk, since the corrections were usually carried out in quiet places, where the texts could be revised more comfortably.

In the forefront and on the right side, the printer master or manager is depicted, along with the presser, who is adjusting the press to the paper. Judging by the position of his hands and the expression on his face, he could be giving instructions to the presser. The manager had to direct and review the works, deal with the editors, place the orders, and report back to the owner; they had to be a trained and educated person capable of managing and dealing with people, showing “good moral traits” [55].

The presser was in charge of placing the paper sheet in the drum of the press so that, after initiating its movement using the handle, the printing would take place. At the back of the etching, there is a second press with the beater, who was in charge of inking the types. Printing press workshops usually employed wooden inkwells covered with combed wool, which was in turn covered with sheepskin nailed or bound around the wood (known as bales) [4].

Figure 2 shows the beater holding bales in each of his hands; in front of him, on a small table, there is another bale next to a jar that would contain the ink. Furthermore, on the lower left side of the etching, next to the sword, there are other bales on the floor. This tool was soaked in ink and was placed on the plates with the compositions, which were then placed in the press for printing on the paper. Subsequently, these inkwells were replaced by rollers, which had to be carefully cleaned before being put away, as was carried out for the types and all the other materials. The rollers were cleaned using brushes (Figure 5b). They were soaked in bleach, and the brush was gently run over the area to be cleaned. Sigüenza highlighted the importance of not pushing the brush but sliding it gently to prevent the brush hairs from bending, which could damage the letters [15]. The bleach for cleaning the types was obtained by filtering red-hot ash with water in a copper recipient with a mat and pressing the mixture to distil it. Then, it was stored in jars. Before using it, it had to be slightly heated [4,16].

Behind the presser, there are different sheets hanging in a drying process, although, normally, they were carefully spread on a dry sheet in the press. This sheet could be wet paper ready to be introduced in the press before printing.

Lastly, at the center and in the forefront, a child orders the printed sheets, which are probably ready for the bookbinding process.

Comparing the etching of Stradanus (Figure 2) with the image in Figure 8, little variation can be observed between the printing press workshops from the 16th to the 19th century. Figure 8 shows the printing workshop of Tenllado in Lucena, a town located a few kilometers from Montilla. This was a family typographic establishment, founded in 1860, in which five generations of printers had worked until the early 21st century. In this picture, the owner and master printer D. Mariano Tenllado y Nieto is in the center of the image in its background, on the right of the press. His son is on the left, in the forefront and under the windows; as in Figure 2, there are types and printer’s cabinets with the letter types of the printer. On the right side, there are young operators, and, in the forefront, the daughter of the owner is working using one of the printing machines.

4.2. The Printing Press in Montilla in the 17th Century—Curiosities

Figure 9 shows the evolution of the printing press, indicating its arrival in Spain, Andalusia, and Córdoba, up to its arrival in Montilla in 1622.

In Montilla, there were important characters of universal history, as it is the birthplace of the military men Gonzalo Fernández (el Gran Capitán) and Diego de Alvear, and it was the place of residence for famous writers of the Modern Age, such as San Francisco Solano, San Juan de Ávila, and Garcilaso de la Vega [56,57,58]. In the 16th century, a strong demographic increase took place, and Felipe IV granted it the title of city in 1630. Numerous convent foundations emerged (Franciscans, Augustians, Poor Claris, Jesuits, and Conceptionists). In the 17th century, the famine caused by poor harvest, epidemics such as the plague, and economic recession halted the growth of Montilla, which slowed down the implementation of the printing press in this city [59].

Morte Molina described the arrival of the printing press in Montilla in the early 17th century, with three printing presses being introduced: one owned by Miguel de Paiva, another one owned by Juan Bautista de Morales, and the other owned by the Marquis of Priego [60]. Due to a typographic error when referring to Paiva or Payva, Molina wrote “Miguel” instead of “Manuel”, so he was also known as Manuel Botello de Paiva.

The first Montillian printer known according to the existing documentary evidence was Juan Bautista de Morales. Until 1996, there were barely any references to him: he did not own a workshop, and no works made by him were known beyond the year 1629, that is, in reference to Maravillas de la Naturaleza (Wonders of Nature) [61]. The research work of Garramiola Prieto and Gascón Ricao allowed for the writing of his biography [61]. He was christened in the parish of Santiago Apóstol on 7 July 1577. He was born to the scribe Juan Baptista de Morales and Leonor Rodríguez de Morales [62]. He studied at the Encarnación School of Montilla and continued his studies in Córdoba, Seville, and Madrid. On 25 August 1596, he married Inés de León [63] and had three children, María, Magdalena, and Juan, the last of whom also became a printer. He met the previously mentioned requirements for being a good printer, including education in arts and literature. He worked as a scribe and wrote his first known work, Jornada de África del rey Don Sebastián de Portugal (Figure 10), published in Seville, in 1622 [64]. He was also a translator, since, in some of the works made in his workshop, it is indicated he translated them, as shown in the text of their colophons.

On 10 October 1622, he signed a deed, in the presence of notary Luis Gutiérrez, for the establishment of a printing press. In it, Manuel de Payva, also known as Manuel Botello de Paiva, worked as master printer. They met each other in Seville, in the workshop of Cordoban citizen Gabriel Ramos Bejarano, from whom de Morales bought the equipment for the printing press (press, books, types, boxes, etc.), which was transported to Montilla by Payva, an apprentice of Ramos Bejarano [65]. In the deed, Payva committed to working as a manager for de Morales for a year, with absolute availability, in exchange for 50 reals per month, a bed, and clean clothes, in addition to the 237 reals that he had received so far. With this clause, de Morales ensured the permanence of Payva for long enough to learn the profession [66].

Table 1. List of books and year printed by Juan Bautista de Morales.

Year	Book
1622	Corte en aldea y noches de imbierno (Village Court and Winter Nights)
1623	Pronunciaciones generales de lenguas, ortografía, escuela de leer, escribir, y contar, y sinificacion de latras en la mano (General Pronunciations of Languages, Grammar, Reading school, Writing, and Counting, and the Meaning of Hand-Written Letters)
1623	Copia de una carta que nuestro santissimo padre Gregorio Decimo Quinto escrivio al serenissimo rey de la Gran Bretaña (Copy of a Letter that our Holy Father Gregorio the Fifteenth wrote to His Serene Highness King of Great Britain)
1623	Respuesta del serenissimo príncipe de Gales a la carta de nuestro santissimo padre Gregorio XV (Reply of His Serene Highness Prince of Wales to the letter of our Father Gregorio the 15th)
1624	Declaracion de las prodigiosas señales del monstruoso pescado que se hallo en un rio de Polonia en Alemania cuyo retrato se embio a España este año de 1624 (Declaration of the Prodigious Signs of the Monstruous Fish Found in a River of Poland in Germany whose Portrait was sent to Spain this Year of 1624)
1624	Varios prodigios y prodigiosos monstruos que se an visto en el mundo. Y explicación de lo sinifican… (Several Marvels and Prodigious Monsters that have been seen in the World. And an Explanation of what they mean…)
1624	Viaje a Roma para el año santo del jubileo (Trip to Rome for the Holy Year of the Jubilee)
1625	Ramilletes de documentos christianos y avisos morales del caton christiano (Bundles of Christian Documents and Moral Warnings of the Christian Canon)
1629	Corte de aldea y noches de invierno (Village Court and Winter Nights)
1629	Traduccion de la Primavera (Translation of “Spring”)
1631	Chançonetas que canto la música de la catedral de Cordova en la fiesta del insigne altar que se dedico en 15 de enero de 1631 (Songs Sung by the Orchestra of Córdoba Cathedral in the Festivity of the Distinguished Altar on 15 January 1631)
1633	Semon que predico el dia del peraphico patriarca san Francisco en su convento dedicado al mismo glorioso sancto su padre (Speech Given by Patriarch San Francisco on Peraphico Day in his Monastery Dedicated to his Glorious Father)
1633	Memorial que envio a la santidad de nuestro santissimo padre Urbano VIII en orden a la canonización del santo rey don Fernando por la ciudad de Sevilla (Memorial sent to our Holy Father Urbano the Eighth for the Canonization of His Holy Highness King Fernando by the City of Seville)

presents all the works printed in the workshop of de Morales. The richness of his workshop’s activity is found in the diversity of topics in its produced texts, extending to the year 1633, contrasting with the thesis of Delgado Casado. Among all the works of de Morales, his first work is worth highlighting: Corte en Aldea y Noches de Invierno (Village Court and Winter Nights), by Francisco Rodríguez Lobo [67]. The importance of this first work of the first printing press of Montilla lies in the fact that it is a relevant work of Portuguese literature. It is a manual of good behavior translated into Spanish by Juan Bautista de Morales, from which several reprintings were made in other workshops of the kingdom. Thus, the first work of the workshop of Juan Bautista de Morales was the first translation into Spanish of the last work by Rodríguez Lobo. Morales saw a great opportunity to enter the editorial business, making use of the scarcity of original treatises about politeness such as that by Rodríguez Lobo [68]. He also translated and printed this Portuguese’s author first work “La Primavera” (Spring) in 1629. That very year, he also edited, in the printing press of the Marquis of Priego, “Maravillas de la Naturaleza” (Marvels of Nature) [69] (Figure 10), of which Francisco García made another printing in Córdoba the same year; these were written by Ramírez de Carrión, teacher and secretary of the marquis. Among the works that were made in his printing press, it is worth highlighting the “General pronunciations of languages (…)”—edited in 1623 and written by his brother Cristóbal Bautista de Morales [70], a schoolteacher—which was dedicated to D. Alonso Fernández of Córdoba, dubbed the deaf, 5th Marquis of Priego, who was deaf and mute [24].

Furthermore,

Table 2. List of books and the years in which they were printed at the Printing Press of the Marquis of Priego.

Year	Book
1626	Relaciones. Copia de lo que se halla en las provanças hechas para la canoniçcacion del venerable padre maestro Juan de Avila, predicador apostólico destos reynos, y en particular de Andaluzia (Relationships. Copy of what is found in the Provinces made for the Canonization of the Venerable Father Juan de Avila, Apostolic Preacher of this Kingdom, Particularly Andalusia)
1626	Discurso en la confeccion de Alchermes (Discourse on the Making of Alchermes)
1629	Maravillas de la naturaleza en que se contienen dos mil secretos de cosas naturales dispuestos por abecedario a modo de aforismos recogidos de la lección de diversos y graves autores (Marvels of Nature, Containing Two Thousand Secrets of natural things ordered alphabetically as a list of aphorisms gathered from the teachings of diverse and important authors)
1628	Hermandad cristiana. Ermandad christiana en favor de vivos, y difundos, para librarse de las penas del purgatorio, alcançar con otros bienes de Dios n.s. en esta vida (Christian Brotherhood. Christian Brotherhood in favor of the living, and the dead, to avoid the sufferings of purgatory, attaining with other goods of God our Lord in this life)
1631	Primera parte del arte de servir a nuestra señora y entretenimiento para sus devotos (First part of serving Our Lady and entertainment for her devotees)
1634	Romances y chançonetas que se cantaron en la profession de doña Francisca de Cordona y Ribera hija de los marqueses de Priego y ahora soror Francisca de la Cruz y de los Angeles (Romances and songs that were sung in the profession of Mrs. Francisca de Cordona and Ribera, daughter of the Marquises of Priego and now sister Francisca de la Cross and the Angels)
1634	Fiestas que celebro la noble villa de Vaena a la canonizacion de los gloriosos mártires del Japon (Festivities that were celebrated in the noble small town of Vaena for the canonization of the glorious martyrs of Japan)

shows the texts printed by de Morales in the Printing Press of the Marquis of Priego. All of them are signed by de Morales, except the last two (Figure 11). Consequently, Ramírez de Arellano, in his correspondence with Dámaso Delgado [24], assumed that since they were not signed by de Morales and were printed in the year that he died, they were printed by Payva, presuming that he took charge of the printing press of the Marquis after the death of the Montillian printer in 1634. This is unlikely, as Payva left Montilla in 1627 and moved to Antequera [63]. Although these two works are not signed by de Morales, they were probably the last, since, after his death, no other typographic works printed in Montilla have been found [68].

Montillian journalist and writer Dámaso Delgado López mentions the possibility that Juan Bautista de Morales also printed another two of his works, namely, “Jardín de Suertes morales y ciertas” (1616) and “Arte de leer y escribir reglas claras y útiles para instruir a la juventud” (1621) [24], although these books have not been found.

There is a document that was printed in Montilla in 1623 in which the printing press is not indicated, although it is thought that it was printed using one of these two printing presses. This document is the “Famosa vitoria y grandiosa presa que algunas galeras de Napoles, Florencia y Sicilia alcançaron de un renegado morisco natural de Ossuna, general de ocho galeras del turco miércoles quatro de otubre dia de s. Francisco deste año de 1623” [72].

The third printing press found in Montilla is that of Manuel de Payva or Manuel Botello de Paiva. Jiménez Barranco stated that Payva was born in Lisbon (Portugal) to Antonio Botello Barreto and Isabel de Payva and that he married María de Herrera in the parish of Santiago of Montilla soon after arriving in the city on 25 July 1623 [73].

It is certain that he arrived in Montilla around the year 1622, along with Juan Bautista de Morales [65]. When the one-year exclusive partnership he had with de Morales ended in 1623, and after marrying María de Herrera, he began to prepare everything he needed to establish his own printing press. Thanks to the testament of his first wife and the different codicils, some of the aspects of this process can be known. For example, from Cordoban citizen Pedro de Cea, he acquired machinery and equipment [74], and an important part of the capital for his endeavor was provided by his wife. In fact, in the last of the codicils, he declared that she was forced to make a will in favor of her husband; being ill and having no children, she declared her siblings universal heirs, forcing her husband to assume the payment of the capital invested in his business. He presented the endorsement of neighbors from Portugal and even the printing press itself [75]. He was forced to change the location of the printing press in 1625 and 1626 [75]. In 1627, he moved to Antequera, resuming his typographic activity around 1631. He also made publications in Osuna between 1629 and 1630 [60].

The last work printed in his Montillian workshop was “Panegírico de la poesía” [76] (Figure 12), which was reprinted in Seville in 1886 by bibliophile Manuel Pérez de Guzmán. It is a very particular treatise about poetry, attributed to Fernando de Vera and Mendoza, who did not sign his work, probably due to the bad relationship he had with his father, the Count of Roca [76,77].

Figure 13 presents the first known productions of the first printing presses of Montilla in the 17th century, which are gathered in Table 1, Table 2 and

Table 3. List of books and the years in which they were printed by Payva.

Year	Books
1625	Relacion del auto de fe celebrado en Sevilla en 30 de noviembre de 1624, dirigido a Miguel Alvarez Salvador, familiar del santo oficio y regidor perpetuo de la villa de Alcala de Guadaira (Report of the burning of a heretic in Seville on 30 November 1624, addressed to Miguel Alvarez Salvador, kin of the holy service and perpetual councilor of the small town of Alcala de Guadaira)
1625	Tratado y relación del auto publico de fee que se hizo en la ciudad de Sevilla el dia de san Andres, sábado 30 de noviembre, por mandado del santo oficio de la inquisición de la misma ciudad (Treatise and report of the public burning of a heretic in the city of Seville on San Andres Day, Saturday 30 November, ordered by the holy service of the Inquisition of that city)
1625	Verdadera relación de la grandiosa vitoria, que las armadas de España han tenido en las entradas de Brasil, la qual queda por el rey don Felipe Quarto. Dase también aviso de la refiega de los navios sobre la baia y los días que duraron las batallas (True report of the grandiose victory of the Spanish Armada in the entries of Brazil for our King Felipe the Fourth. It also includes the report of the battles of the ships on the bay and the days that they lasted)
1625	Apologia en defensa del padre maestro fran Fernando de Luxan. (Case in the defense of Father Fran Fernando de Luxan)
1626	Sermon predicado en la fiesta de la exaltación de la cruz y del sanctissimo sacramento de la eucaristhia, en la ciudad de Cordova. (Sermon preached in the festivity of the passion of the Cross and the holy sacrament of the eucharist, in the city of Córdoba)
1626	Discurso del doctor Lorenço de Samillan medico desta ciudad de Sevilla en que se tratan tres puntos tocantes a la curación del sarampión y viruelas, muy necesarios y por el consiguiente se tocan algunas questiones de no menos importancia. (Speech of Dr. Lorenço de Samillan, physician of the city of Seville, which tackles three points related to measles and smallpox, which are very necessary, and therefore, other matters of similar relevance are also approached)
1627	Panegyrico por la poesía (Panegyric for poetry)

. As can be observed, they are not very extensive, and there were years in which no books were published (1630 and 1632). The most productive year was 1625, with five productions, four of which were made in the recently created workshop of Payva. His independent typographic activity in the city was ephemeral, producing only seven works in three years. The activity of Juan Bautista de Morales was more prolific (52% of his output was made in his own workshop and 20% was made for the Printing Press of the Marquis of Priego), although it was sadly interrupted by his illness and death.

4.3. Evolution of the Printing Press in Montilla

With the aid of an archivist and a bibliographic study, the printing presses created in Montilla were identified (

Table 4. List of printing presses in Montilla (Spain) from the 17th century to the present time.

Century	Printing Press
17th	Juan Bautista de Morales
	Manuel de Payua
	Printing Press of the Marquis of Priego
18th	-------
19th	Printing press of Garnelo
	Printing press of Francisco de Paula Moreno
	Printing press of M. de Sola Torices
	El Progreso Typographic Establishment
	José Córdoba Aguilera Typographic Establishment
	La Campiña Printing Press
20th	Gave
	Printing press of San José
	La Industria Printing Press
	Luis Raigón Printers
	La Española Printing Press
	La Gutenberg
	Montilla Agraria
	San Francisco Solano
	La Montillana
	Sarmiento
XXI	Gave Graphic Arts
	La Gutenberg Printing Press
	Servitalonario.com
	M.C. Graphic Printing Press

). This was an ambitious and innovative project, promoted by the desire of the Marquis of Priego and Juan Bautista de Morales to illustrate the town, which was probably too ambitious with regard to the size of population of the area. In this regard, in 1625, master printer Juan Serrano de Vargas and Ureña wrote a memorial [78,79] about the abuses that took place in this guild, stating that “in Montilla, a place with few neighbours and four middle-letter men, there are two printers who are a source of a thousand injustices and absurdities that they print and spread all over Andalusia”, referring to de Morales and Payva. In fact, after the death of de Morales, there was no typographic activity in Montilla until the mid-19th century, as is reported by Morte Molina, stating that such activity “decreased until reaching absolute silence”. Some historical events that developed at this time must be taken into account since they decisively influenced the development of the typographic industry: epidemics, unhealthy economic conditions, the expulsion of the Jesuits from Montilla, and the confiscation of 1836, causing different religious orders to abandon the town [56,57,58,59].

In 1833, Dr. José Ramón Garnelo, the father of printer José Garnelo, opened a printing press in his home on Corredera Street. He then transferred it to printer Manuel de Sola Torices. In 1849, the printing press of Francisco de Paula Moreno was opened, and it maintained its activity until the year 1877. After this, in the last years of the 19th century, another three printing presses appeared in Montilla. This new boost for the printing press in Montilla coincided with the development of local newspaper publications from the year 1850, with El Astro newspapers [4].

The maximum splendor of this art in the city occurred in the 20th century, decreasing in the current era to the four workshops that exist today. Two of these retain the same names as those founded in the 19th century, although they do not belong to the same families of printers that founded them.

In the Biblioteca Manuel Ruiz Luque Foundation of Montilla, there is a vast collection of books that have been printed in Montilla since the year 1622.

5. Conclusions

This study thoroughly characterizes the Spanish printing press of the 17th century. The invention of the printing press of moveable types sparked a true revolution and has been key to the preservation and transmission of cultural heritage and knowledge. Its evolution since the mid-20th century has been the result of the industrial and technological revolution, bringing production closer to the user.

The printing press has been the means of culture dissemination par excellence in the Modern Age, through both books and etchings. The etchings of Huss, Merian, Amman, and Stradanus are remarkable testimonies regarding the printing press industry in the Modern Age. Specifically, Stradanus, in Impressio Librorum, represents in detail the first printing press workshops and the printing process.

His analyses, accompanied by different treatises from that time, were fundamental to understanding each of the elements of the typographic industry and bringing to the 21st century an art that has been widely transformed. This study introduces the art of printing, in a didactic manner, to new generations.

The case study on Montilla is interesting, as it analyzes the reasons behind the entrepreneurship of an elite in a rural environment and how its evolution was favored by the social and economic development in some periods and slowed down in others.

This manuscript analyzes the contribution of the printing press to the dissemination and preservation of cultural and industrial heritage in the Modern Age, fostering historical continuity and aligning with Sustainable Development Goal 4 on Quality Education. Moreover, it explores the role of archival science in harnessing this heritage, promoting responsible consumption and production, and supporting Sustainable Development Goal 9 on Industry, Innovation, and Infrastructure.

In line with SDG 4, the dissemination of this profession and its printing techniques will favor the enhancement of this profession, which has mostly been focused on men, in the following ways:

-

Ensuring equal access for men and women (SDG 4.3 and 4.5);

-

Improving their professional, personal, and social skills for employment (SDGs 4.4 and 4.6); promoting sustainable development and sustainable lifestyles; and valuing how culture contributes to sustainable development (SDG 4.7)

On the other hand, in relation to SDGs 9.2, 9.4, and 9.5, this research is a way of valuing part of the world’s cultural heritage, such as that of the typographic industry. It is true that digital printing, which predominates today, is more sustainable and ecologically friendly than traditional printing, as it does not generate waste, but it is important that it is not lost. Thanks to the description of the natural materials used in ancient times for the production of dyes and instrument cleaners, new lines of research can be developed for the production of environmentally sustainable products today.

The Spanish printing press of the 17th century was characterized through the analysis of an etching by Stradanus, relating it to the founding of the first typographic workshops in the rural Andalusian territory and studying the specific case of Montilla. From the production of these printing presses, important works of Spanish literature stand out, such as the first translation into Spanish of the famous Lusitanian work “Maravillas de la Naturaleza”.

This work opens new research lines in the framework of an analysis of industrial development and arts that have almost disappeared through the study of etchings and treatises of the studied time. In this sense, it would be interesting to carry out a study of a specific case of a printing press in the area that has survived for several centuries, analyzing its evolution from an industrial and socioeconomic point of view. Another interesting line of research would be the comparative study of the colophons of the texts printed in these first printing presses of Montilla or a 3D reconstruction of the first of the printing presses based on Stradanus’s engravings and on research work conducted in the Archive of City Notarial Protocols. On the other hand, the analysis of illustrated posters and advertising made in Montilla printing presses, focusing on the design, techniques, and materials used, is another interesting line of research that can be derived from this article. There are different lines of research that we consider complementary to those presented and that will help promote the value of this industry.