Control Measures and Health Effects of Air Pollution: A Survey among Public Transportation Commuters in Malaysia
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Participants and Settings
2.2. Study Questionnaire
2.3. Data Analyses
3. Results
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
6. Limitation
Acknowledgments
Author Contributions
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Details | Frequency, n (%) |
---|---|
(A) Socio-demographic data | |
Age group (years old) | |
30 and below | 452 (56.5) |
31–40 | 265 (33.1) |
>40 | 83 (10.4) |
Gender | |
Male | 424 (53.0) |
Female | 376 (47.0) |
Marital status | |
Single | 414 (51.8) |
Married | 386 (48.3) |
Ethnicity | |
Malay | 388 (48.5) |
Chinese | 271 (33.9) |
Indian | 138 (17.3) |
Others | 3 (0.4) |
Education | |
Secondary level and below | 146 (18.2) |
Tertiary level | 654 (81.8) |
Occupation | |
Professional/managerial | 419 (52.4) |
Skilled/non-skilled worker | 314 (40.6) |
Student | 54 (6.8) |
Housewife | 2 (0.2) |
Monthly income (MYR) | |
5000 and below | 651 (81.4) |
>5000 | 149 (18.6) |
(B) Other exposure risks | |
Chronic diseases | |
Yes | 51 (6.4) |
No | 749 (93.6) |
Smoking status | |
Yes | 309 (38.6) |
No | 491 (61.4) |
Living near highway | |
Yes | 292 (36.5) |
No | 508 (63.5) |
Duration spent commuting by public transport (hours) | |
1 h and below | 472 (59.0) |
>1 h | 328 (41.0) |
During Daily Commute | During Haze Days | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Never/Rarely n (%) | Sometimes/Often n (%) | Never/Rarely n (%) | Sometimes/Often n (%) | |
Use normal surgical mask | 597 (74.6) | 203 (25.4) | 63 (7.9) | 737 (92.1) |
Use dust masks N95 during severe haze day | 703 (87.9) | 97 (12.1) | 272 (34.0) | 528 (66.0) |
Drink more water | 175 (21.9) | 625 (78.1) | 7 (0.9) | 793 (99.1) |
Increase the intake of fresh fruits or vegetables | 327 (40.9) | 473 (59.1) | 65 (8.1) | 735 (91.9) |
Take food supplements (vitamins, nutrients, herbal products) | 481 (60.1) | 319 (39.9) | 254 (31.8) | 546 (68.2) |
As much as possible commute using alternative transportation (e.g., friends car) to avoid exposure | 450 (56.3) | 350 (43.8) | 316 (39.5) | 484 (60.5) |
Total Control Measure Score | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
During Daily Commute | During Haze Days | ||||||
Total | Cluster I 0–8 (n = 440) | Cluster II 9–18 (n = 360) | p-Value | Cluster I 0–11 (n = 154) | Cluster II 12–18 (n = 646) | p-Value | |
(A) SOCIO-DEMOGRAPHIC DATA | |||||||
Age group (years old) | |||||||
30 and below | 452 (56.5) | 244 (54.0) | 208 (46.0) | 100 (22.1) | 352 (77.9) | ||
31–40 | 265 (33.1) | 147 (55.5) | 118 (44.5) | 0.684 | 39 (14.7) | 226 (85.3) | 0.050 |
>40 | 83 (10.4) | 49 (59.0) | 34 (41.0) | 15 (18.1) | 68 (81.9) | ||
Gender | |||||||
Male | 424 (53.0) | 233 (55.0) | 191 (45.0) | 1.000 | 82 (19.3) | 342 (80.7) | 1.000 |
Female | 376(47.0) | 207 (55.1) | 169 (44.9) | 72 (19.1) | 304 (80.9) | ||
Marital status | |||||||
Single | 414 (51.8) | 235 (56.8) | 179 (43.2) | 0.320 | 92 (22.2) | 322 (77.8) | 0.031 |
Married | 386 (48.3) | 205 (53.1) | 181 (46.9) | 62 (16.1) | 324 (83.9) | ||
Ethnicity | |||||||
Malay | 388 (48.5) | 212 (54.6) | 176 (45.4) | 81 (20.9) | 307 (79.1) | ||
Chinese | 271 (33.9) | 143 (52.8) | 128 (47.2) | 0.383 | 52 (19.2) | 219 (80.8) | 0.053 |
Indian | 138 (17.3) | 84 (60.9) | 54 (39.1) | 19 (13.8) | 119 (86.2) | ||
Others | 3 (0.4) | 1 (33.3) | 2 (66.7) | 2 (66.7) | 1 (33.3) | ||
Highest education level | |||||||
Secondary level and below | 146 (18.2) | 88 (60.3) | 58 (39.7) | 0.168 | 28 (19.2) | 118 (80.8) | 1.000 |
Tertiary level | 654 (81.8) | 352 (53.8) | 302 (46.2) | 126 (19.3) | 528 (80.7) | ||
Occupation | |||||||
Professional/managerial | 419 (52.4) | 224 (53.5) | 195 (46.5) | 87 (20.8) | 332 (79.2) | ||
Skilled/non-skilled worker | 314 (40.6) | 184 (56.6) | 141 (43.4) | 0.310 | 55 (16.9) | 270 (83.1) | 0.469 |
Student | 54 (6.8) | 32 (59.3) | 22 (40.7) | 12 (22.2) | 42 (77.8) | ||
Housewife | 2 (0.2) | 0 (100.0) | 2 (100.0) | 0 (0.0) | 2 (100.0) | ||
Monthly income (MYR) | |||||||
5000 and below | 651 (81.4) | 359 (55.1) | 292 (44.9) | 125 (19.2) | 526 (80.8) | ||
>5000 | 149 (18.6) | 81 (54.4) | 68 (45.6) | 0.927 | 29 (19.5) | 120 (80.5) | 0.909 |
(B) OTHER RISKS | |||||||
Chronic diseases | |||||||
Yes | 51 (6.4) | 25 (49.0) | 26 (51.0) | 0.386 | 10 (19.6) | 41 (80.4) | 1.000 |
No | 749 (93.6) | 415 (55.4) | 334 (44.6) | 144 (19.2) | 605 (80.8) | ||
Smoking status | |||||||
Yes | 309 (38.6) | 184 (59.5) | 125 (40.5) | 0.041 | 56 (18.1) | 253 (81.9) | 0.581 |
No | 491 (61.4) | 256 (52.1) | 235 (47.9) | 98 (20.0) | 393 (80.0) | ||
Living near highway | |||||||
Yes | 292 (36.5) | 159 (54.5) | 133 (45.5) | 0.825 | 67 (22.9) | 225 (77.1) | 0.050 |
No | 508 (63.5) | 281 (55.3) | 227 (44.7) | 87 (17.1) | 421 (82.9) | ||
Duration spent commuting by public transport (hours) | |||||||
1 h and below | 472 (59.0) | 258 (54.7) | 214 (45.3) | 0.829 | 98 (20.8) | 374 (79.2) | 0.203 |
>1 h | 328 (41.0) | 182 (55.5) | 146 (44.5) | 56 (17.1) | 272 (82.9) |
Total Physical and Psychological Health Experience Score | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
During Daily Commute Days | During Haze Days | |||||||
Cluster I 0–4 (n = 684) | Cluster II 5–22 (n = 116) | p-Value | Cluster I 0–11 (n = 434) | Cluster II 12–22 (n = 366) | p-Value | Multiple Logistic Regression for 12–22 vs. 0–11 ¥ | ||
(A) SOCIO-DEMOGRAPHIC DATA | ||||||||
Age group (years old) | ||||||||
30 and below | 452 (56.5) | 387 (85.6) | 65 (14.4) | 248 (54.9) | 204 (45.1) | 1.580 (0.967–2.583) | ||
31–40 | 265(33.1) | 230 (86.8) | 35 (13.2) | 0.389 | 132 (49.8) | 133 (50.2) | 0.048 | 1.852 (1.107–3.099) * |
>40 | 83(10.4) | 67 (80.7) | 16 (19.3) | 54 (65.1) | 29 (34.9) | Reference | ||
Gender | ||||||||
Male | 424 (53.0) | 370 (87.3) | 54 (12.7) | 0.159 | 288 (53.8) | 196 (46.2) | 0.777 | |
Female | 376(47.0) | 314 (83.5) | 62 (16.5) | 206 (54.8) | 170 (45.2) | |||
Marital status | ||||||||
Single | 414 (51.8) | 356 (86.0) | 58 (14.0) | 0.689 | 234 (56.5) | 180 (43.5) | 0.201 | |
Married | 386 (48.3) | 328 (85.0) | 58 (15.0) | 200 (51.8) | 186 (48.2) | |||
Ethnicity | ||||||||
Malay | 388 (48.5) | 332 (85.6) | 56 (14.4) | 206 (53.1) | 182 (46.9) | |||
Chinese | 271 (33.9) | 235 (86.7) | 36 (13.3) | 0.636 | 151 (55.7) | 120 (44.3) | 0.798 | |
Indian | 138 (17.3) | 115 (83.3) | 23 (16.7) | 76 (55.1) | 62 (44.9) | |||
Others | 3 (0.4) | 2 (66.7) | 1 (33.3) | 1 (33.3) | 2 (66.7) | |||
Highest education level | ||||||||
Secondary level and below | 146 (18.2) | 124 (84.9) | 22 (15.1) | 0.796 | 78 (53.4) | 68 (46.6) | 0.854 | |
Tertiary level | 654 (81.8) | 560 (85.6) | 94 (14.4) | 356 (54.4) | 298 (45.6) | |||
Occupation | ||||||||
Professional and managerial | 419 (52.4) | 358 (85.4) | 61 (14.6) | 216 (51.6) | 203 (48.4) | |||
Skilled/non-skilled worker | 314 (40.6) | 278 (85.5) | 47 (14.5) | 0.951 | 186 (57.2) | 139 (42.8) | 0.249 | |
Student | 54 (6.8) | 46 (85.2) | 8 (14.8) | 30 (55.6) | 24 (44.4) | |||
Housewife | 2 (0.2) | 2 (100.0) | 0 (0.0) | 2 (100.0) | 0 (0.0) | |||
Monthly income (MYR) | ||||||||
5000 and below | 651 (81.4) | 559 (85.9) | 36 (14.1) | 143 (56.1) | 112 (43.9) | |||
>5000 | 149 (18.6) | 125 (83.9) | 56 (14.1) | 0.826 | 205 (51.8) | 191 (48.2) | 0.359 | |
(B) OTHER RISKS | ||||||||
Chronic diseases | ||||||||
Yes | 51 (6.4) | 40 (78.4) | 92 (14.1) | 0.521 | 348 (53.5) | 303 (46.5) | 0.363 | |
No | 749 (93.6) | 644 (86.0) | 24 (16.1) | 86 (57.7) | 63 (42.3) | |||
Smoking status | ||||||||
Yes | 309 (38.6) | 266 (86.1) | 43 (13.9) | 0.758 | 164 (53.1) | 145 (46.9) | 0.610 | |
No | 491 (61.4) | 418 (85.1) | 73 (14.9) | 270 (55.0) | 221 (45.0) | |||
Living near highway | ||||||||
Yes | 292 (36.5) | 255 (87.3) | 37 (12.7) | 0.297 | 145 (49.7) | 147 (50.3) | 0.055 | |
No | 508 (63.5) | 429 (84.4) | 79 (15.6) | 289 (56.9) | 219 (43.1) | |||
Duration spent commuting by public transport (hours) | ||||||||
1 h and below | 472 (59.0) | 412 (87.3) | 60 (12.7) | 0.102 | 252 (53.4) | 220 (46.6) | 0.565 | |
>1 h | 328 (41.0) | 272 (82.9) | 56 (17.1) | 182 (55.5) | 146 (44.5) | |||
(C) CONTROL MEASURES | ||||||||
DURING DAILY COMMUTE DAYS | ||||||||
Total control measure score | ||||||||
Cluster I (0–8) | 440 (55.0) | 371 (84.3) | 69 (15.7) | 0.314 | ||||
Cluster II (9–18) | 360 (45.0) | 313 (86.9) | 47 (13.1) | |||||
DURING HAZE DAYS | ||||||||
Total control measure score | ||||||||
Cluster I (0–11) | 103 (66.9) | 51 (33.1) | 0.000 | Reference | ||||
Cluster II (12–18) | 331 (51.2) | 315 (48.8) | 1.907 (1.315–2.765) ** |
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Wong, L.P.; Alias, H.; Aghamohammadi, N.; Ghadimi, A.; Sulaiman, N.M.N. Control Measures and Health Effects of Air Pollution: A Survey among Public Transportation Commuters in Malaysia. Sustainability 2017, 9, 1616. https://doi.org/10.3390/su9091616
Wong LP, Alias H, Aghamohammadi N, Ghadimi A, Sulaiman NMN. Control Measures and Health Effects of Air Pollution: A Survey among Public Transportation Commuters in Malaysia. Sustainability. 2017; 9(9):1616. https://doi.org/10.3390/su9091616
Chicago/Turabian StyleWong, Li Ping, Haridah Alias, Nasrin Aghamohammadi, Azadeh Ghadimi, and Nik Meriam Nik Sulaiman. 2017. "Control Measures and Health Effects of Air Pollution: A Survey among Public Transportation Commuters in Malaysia" Sustainability 9, no. 9: 1616. https://doi.org/10.3390/su9091616