Low Daily Intake of Fruits and Vegetables in Rural and Urban Bangladesh: Influence of Socioeconomic and Demographic Factors, Social Food Beliefs and Behavioural Practices
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Methods and Materials
2.1. Study Area and Sampling
2.2. Household Survey
2.3. Measuring Daily Food Intake
2.4. Calculation of Belief and Behavioural Practice Index
2.5. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Socioeconomic Description of the Respondents
3.2. Distribution of Low Daily Fruit and Vegetable Intake
3.3. Descriptive Analysis of Respondents’ Social Belief and Behavioural Practice in Terms of Fruits and Vegetable Consumption
3.4. Econometric Analysis of Social Beliefs and Social Practices in Terms of Sociodemographic and Lifestyle Variables
3.5. Econometric Analysis of Low Intake of Fruits and Vegetable in Terms of Sociodemographic and Lifestyle Variables
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Items | Portion Size = 1 Serving | Gm Per Serving | Example |
---|---|---|---|
Vegetables | 1/2 Cup | 100 | |
Cooked vegetables | |||
Soup/juice of vegetables | 1/2 Cup | 80 | Lettuce, cucumber |
Raw salad/vegetables | 1 Cup | 80 | |
Fruits | 1 medium size | 100 | |
Apple/banana/orange | |||
Small fruits | 2–8 pieces | 100 | 8 Jujubes, 2 plums |
Chopped/canned fruit | 1/2 cup | 80 | Watermelon |
Fruit juice | 1/2 cup | 80 | Mango, Orange |
Additive Index | Items |
---|---|
Food belief | ‘Rice is more important than vegetables in everyday meals’ |
‘Meat is more important than vegetables in daily meals’ | |
Food status | ‘Vegetables are food for the poor’ |
‘Fish and meat are food for the rich’ | |
Subjective belief | ‘My family members eat enough vegetables’ |
‘My family members eat enough fruits’ | |
Environmental practice | ‘Formalin on fruits is a more important reason than higher price for low intake of fruits’ |
‘Pesticide use on vegetables is a more important driver for low intake of vegetables’ | |
Economic Practice | ‘If income rises, more meat is purchased than vegetables’ |
‘If income rises, more rice is purchased than vegetables’ |
Variables | Rural (n = 301) | Urban (n = 200) | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Male | Female | Male | Female | |
n | 243 (81%) | 58 (19%) | 136 (68%) | 64 (32%) |
Mean Age | 48.8 | 48 | 48.3 | 53 |
Age Group | ||||
25–34 | 15.6 | 17.2 | 17.7 | 4.7 |
35–44 | 23.5 | 15.5 | 22.8 | 17.2 |
45–55 | 23.9 | 32.8 | 23.5 | 28.1 |
55–64 | 20.2 | 25.9 | 20.6 | 29.7 |
65+ | 16.9 | 8.6 | 15.4 | 20.3 |
Marital Status | ||||
Married | 98.4 | 39.7 | 97.8 | 67.2 |
Divorced/Separated/Widowed | 1.7 | 60.3 | 2.2 | 32.8 |
Religion | ||||
Muslim | 62.6 | 82.8 | 87.5 | 85.9 |
Hindu | 37.5 | 17.2 | 12.5 | 14.1 |
Education | ||||
No formal | 52.3 | 65.5 | 11.8 | 9.4 |
Primary | 32.5 | 31.0 | 24.3 | 26.6 |
Secondary | 13.2 | 3.5 | 25.7 | 29.7 |
Higher Secondary+ | 2.1 | 0.0 | 38.2 | 34.4 |
Occupation | ||||
Day labour | 33.3 | 5.2 | 5.2 | 10.9 |
Self employed | 11.9 | 1.7 | 4.4 | 3.1 |
Agriculture | 30.5 | 5.2 | - | - |
Business | 9.1 | 5.2 | 46.3 | 25.0 |
Service | 3.3 | - | 27.9 | 20.3 |
Housewife | - | 63.8 | - | 10.9 |
No occupation | 11.9 | 19.0 | 16.2 | 29.7 |
HH Income/month (BDT) | ||||
<15000 | 82.4 | 79.3 | 22.3 | 11.5 |
15001–30000 | 13.9 | 19.0 | 36.4 | 26.9 |
>30000 | 3.8 | 1.7 | 41.3 | 61.5 |
Number of Children < 5 | ||||
0 | 53.5 | 69.0 | 61.0 | 68.8 |
1 | 26.3 | 17.2 | 30.9 | 14.1 |
2+ | 20.2 | 13.8 | 8.1 | 17.2 |
Smokes tobacco | ||||
No | 34.6 | 84.5 | 74.3 | 93.8 |
yes | 65.4 | 15.5 | 25.7 | 6.3 |
Smokeless Tobacco | ||||
No | 38.3 | 12.1 | 81.6 | 71.9 |
Yes | 61.7 | 87.9 | 18.4 | 28.1 |
Physical Activity | ||||
No | 96.7 | 96.6 | 78.7 | 85.9 |
Yes | 3.3 | 3.5 | 21.3 | 14.1 |
Variables | Rural (n = 301) | Urban (n = 200) | p-Value | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
<5 Serving | ≥5 Serving | <5 Serving | ≥5 Serving | ||
n Age Group+ | 92.03 | 7.97 | 75.00 | 25.00 | |
25–34 | 93.75 | 6.25 | 85.19 | 14.81 | 0.2973 |
35–44 | 90.91 | 9.09 | 69.05 | 30.95 | |
45–55 | 90.91 | 9.09 | 74.0 | 26.0 | |
55–64 | 92.73 | 7.27 | 75.31 | 24.69 | |
Sex | 0.9953 | ||||
Male | 91.0 | 9.1 | 75.0 | 25.0 | |
Female | 96.6 | 3.5 | 75.0 | 25.0 | |
Marital Status | |||||
Married | 91.98 | 8.02 | 73.86 | 26.14 | 0.3822 |
Divorced/Separated | 92.31 | 7.69 | 83.33 | 16.67 | |
Religion | |||||
Muslim | 92.00 | 8.00 | 75.29 | 24.71 | 0.2776 |
Hindu | 92.08 | 7.92 | 73.08 | 26.92 | |
Education | |||||
No formal | 94.55 | 5.45 | 90.91 | 9.09 | 0.0000 * |
Primary | 93.81 | 6.19 | 84.0 | 16.0 | |
Secondary | 76.47 | 23.53 | 72.22 | 27.78 | |
Higher Secondary+ | 80.0 | 20.0 | 66.22 | 33.78 | |
Occupation | |||||
Day labour | 94.05 | 5.95 | 85.71 | 14.29 | 0.0000 * |
Self employed | 86.67 | 13.33 | 100.00 | 0.00 | |
Agriculture | 90.91 | 9.09 | |||
Business | 92.00 | 8.00 | 65.82 | 34.18 | |
Service | 75.00 | 25.00 | 78.43 | 21.57 | |
Housewife | 100.00 | 0.00 | 85.71 | 14.29 | |
No occupation | 90.00 | 10.00 | 78.05 | 21.95 | |
HH Income/month (BDT) | |||||
Low: <15.000 | 94.21 | 5.79 | 87.88 | 12.12 | 0.0000 * |
Medium: 15.001–30.000 | 86.36 | 13.64 | 72.41 | 27.59 | |
High: >30.000 | 70.0 | 30.0 | 68.29 | 31.71 | |
Number of Children | |||||
0 | 92.35 | 7.65 | 77.17 | 22.83 | 0.9514 |
1 | 91.89 | 8.11 | 72.55 | 27.45 | |
2+ | 91.23 | 8.77 | 68.18 | 31.82 | |
Smokes tobacco | |||||
No | 92.48 | 7.52 | 72.05 | 27.95 | 0.0033 * |
Yes | 91.67 | 8.33 | 87.18 | 12.82 | |
Smokeless Tobacco | |||||
No | 93.0 | 7.0 | 71.97 | 28.03 | 0.0011 * |
Yes | 91.54 | 8.46 | 86.05 | 13.95 | |
Physical Activity | |||||
No | 91.75 | 8.25 | 74.69 | 25.31 | 0.4147 |
Yes | 100 | 0 | 76.32 | 23.68 | |
Eat at the end | |||||
No | 85.23 | 14.77 | 62.35 | 37.65 | 0.0049 * |
Yes | 97.22 | 2.78 | 78.13 | 21.88 | |
Eat fast food regularly | |||||
No | 89.94 | 10.06 | 67.83 | 32.17 | 0.0016 * |
Yes | 94.37 | 5.63 | 84.71 | 15.29 |
Attitudes | Statements | Response | % | HH Monthly Income | p-Value | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Low | Medium | High | |||||
Food belief | ‘Rice is more important than vegetables in everyday meals’ | Disagree | 25.6 | 13.8 | 31.4 | 54.4 | 0.0000 * |
Neutral | 0.6 | 0.7 | 0.0 | 1.1 | |||
Agree | 73.8 | 85.5 | 68.6 | 44.6 | |||
‘Meat is more important than vegetables in daily meals’ | Disagree | 64.0 | 58.9 | 73.5 | 68.5 | 0.0959 | |
Neutral | 1.3 | 1.5 | 1.0 | 1.1 | |||
Agree | 34.8 | 39.6 | 25.5 | 30.4 | |||
Food status | ‘Vegetables are food for the poor’ | Disagree | 57.6 | 39.3 | 78.4 | 89.1 | 0.0000 * |
Neutral | 1.1 | 1.8 | 0.0 | 0.0 | |||
Agree | 41.4 | 58.9 | 21.6 | 10.9 | |||
‘Fish and meat are food for the rich’ | Disagree | 51.8 | 32.7 | 75.5 | 82.6 | 0.0000 * | |
Neutral | 1.7 | 2.2 | 2.0 | 0.0 | |||
Agree | 46.5 | 65.1 | 22.5 | 17.4 | |||
Subjective belief | ‘My family members eat enough vegetables’ | Agree | 32.2 | 24.0 | 38.2 | 50.0 | 0.0000 * |
Neutral | 6.0 | 9.1 | 2.9 | 0.0 | |||
Disagree | 61.8 | 66.9 | 58.8 | 50.0 | |||
‘My family members eat enough fruits’ | Agree | 26.6 | 19.3 | 29.4 | 45.6 | 0.0000 * | |
Neutral | 6.4 | 9.1 | 3.9 | 1.1 | |||
Disagree | 67.0 | 71.6 | 66.7 | 53.3 | |||
Environmental practice | ‘Formalin on fruits are a more important reason than higher price for why fruits are eaten less’ | Disagree | 30.9 | 33.1 | 22.5 | 33.7 | 0.0003 * |
Neutral | 6.8 | 10.5 | 2.9 | 0.0 | |||
Agree | 62.3 | 56.4 | 74.5 | 66.3 | |||
‘Pesticides on vegetables are a more important driver of eating less vegetables even if the price is low’ | Disagree | 54.2 | 47.3 | 57.8 | 70.6 | 0.0012 * | |
Neutral | 7.9 | 10.5 | 5.9 | 2.2 | |||
Agree | 38.0 | 42.2 | 36.3 | 27.2 | |||
Economic practice | ‘If income rises more meat is bought than vegetables’ | Disagree | 38.6 | 21.8 | 51.0 | 75.0 | 0.0000 * |
Neutral | 3.6 | 4.7 | 2.9 | 1.1 | |||
Agree | 57.8 | 73.5 | 46.1 | 23.9 | |||
‘If income rises more rice is bought than vegetables’ | Disagree | 50.8 | 34.9 | 66.7 | 80.4 | 0.0000 * | |
Neutral | 5.3 | 6.5 | 5.9 | 1.1 | |||
Agree | 43.9 | 58.6 | 27.5 | 18.5 |
Variables | (1) | (2) | (3) | (4) | (5) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
OR of Food Belief | OR of Food Status | OR of Subjective Belief | OR of Environmental Practice | OR of Economic Practice | |
Age Group a + 35–44 years | 0.947 | 0.719 | 0.762 | 1.007 | 0.503 ** |
(0.272) | (0.229) | (0.225) | (0.282) | (0.151) | |
45–54 | 0.775 | 0.713 | 1.193 | 1.146 | 0.627 |
(0.221) | (0.230) | (0.356) | (0.330) | (0.192) | |
55–64 | 1.031 | 0.859 | 0.956 | 1.205 | 0.740 |
(0.310) | (0.287) | (0.298) | (0.353) | (0.234) | |
65+ | 0.979 | 0.844 | 0.633 | 1.240 | 0.405 *** |
Education b | (0.326) | (0.322) | (0.215) | (0.406) | (0.141) |
Primary education | 1.149 | 0.630 ** | 0.609 ** | 1.460 * | 0.876 |
(0.249) | (0.142) | (0.135) | (0.308) | (0.191) | |
Secondary education | 0.652 | 0.514 ** | 0.720 | 1.578 * | 0.661 |
(0.186) | (0.151) | (0.210) | (0.427) | (0.185) | |
Higher Secondary+ | 0.448 ** | 0.245 *** | 0.357 *** | 1.337 | 0.207 *** |
Occupation c | (0.163) | (0.110) | (0.132) | (0.468) | (0.0848) |
Self employed | 0.780 | 0.779 | 0.709 | 1.348 | 2.346 ** |
(0.278) | (0.295) | (0.266) | (0.467) | (0.914) | |
Agriculture | 1.084 | 0.647 | 0.418 *** | 0.653 | 1.192 |
(0.314) | (0.199) | (0.128) | (0.193) | (0.345) | |
Business | 1.975 ** | 0.385 *** | 0.767 | 1.568 | 0.707 |
(0.629) | (0.131) | (0.247) | (0.485) | (0.231) | |
Service | 1.863 | 0.890 | 0.863 | 2.049 * | 1.968 * |
(0.719) | (0.367) | (0.340) | (0.775) | (0.784) | |
Housewife | 0.866 | 0.502 | 0.863 | 0.983 | 0.782 |
(0.359) | (0.232) | (0.370) | (0.406) | (0.340) | |
No occupation | 1.502 | 0.859 | 0.785 | 0.708 | 0.999 |
Income/month (BDT) d | (0.504) | (0.309) | (0.272) | (0.237) | (0.343) |
15000–30000 | 0.876 | 0.347 *** | 0.933 | 1.486 * | 0.648 * |
(0.216) | (0.0881) | (0.229) | (0.352) | (0.161) | |
>30000 | 0.855 | 0.251 *** | 0.813 | 1.150 | 0.564 * |
(0.257) | (0.0872) | (0.256) | (0.338) | (0.187) | |
Married (Marital Status) | 1.205 | 1.033 | 0.660 | 1.229 | 0.437 ** |
(0.390) | (0.355) | (0.218) | (0.385) | (0.151) | |
Rural (Residence) | 7.602 *** | 3.189 *** | 1.995 ** | 5.188 *** | 6.812 *** |
(2.348) | (0.957) | (0.584) | (1.496) | (2.116) | |
Female (Sex) | 0.731 | 0.910 | 0.600 * | 1.051 | 1.479 |
(0.207) | (0.319) | (0.175) | (0.292) | (0.470) | |
Presence of children < 5 | 0.956 | 1.023 | 0.993 | 1.008 | 0.803 * |
(0.107) | (0.123) | (0.115) | (0.112) | (0.0933) | |
Smokes cigarettes | 1.077 | 0.794 | 1.121 | 0.948 | 0.905 |
(0.212) | (0.169) | (0.223) | (0.178) | (0.183) | |
Chews tobacco | 1.305 | 1.407 | 1.165 | 0.924 | 1.552** |
(0.257) | (0.294) | (0.238) | (0.179) | (0.309) | |
Physical activity | 1.430 | 0.836 | 1.607 | 2.104 ** | 0.724 |
(0.476) | (0.328) | (0.526) | (0.662) | (0.273) | |
Eat fast food | 1.405 ** | 1.617 ** | 0.726 * | 0.794 | 1.349 * |
(0.242) | (0.314) | (0.130) | (0.135) | (0.244) | |
Constant cut1 | 0.394 ** | 0.254 *** | 0.0395 *** | 0.440 * | 0.276 *** |
(0.172) | (0.116) | (0.0188) | (0.195) | (0.127) | |
Constant cut2 | 0.637 | 0.295 *** | 0.0641 *** | 0.945 | 0.366 ** |
(0.275) | (0.134) | (0.0297) | (0.414) | (0.167) | |
Constant cut3 | 0.907 | 0.660 | 0.113 *** | 1.601 | 0.637 |
(0.390) | (0.298) | (0.0514) | (0.698) | (0.288) | |
Constant cut4 | 1.127 | 0.727 | 0.151 *** | 2.427 ** | 0.758 |
(0.483) | (0.328) | (0.0680) | (1.057) | (0.342) | |
Constant cut5 | 4.088 *** | 0.976 | 0.411 ** | 6.178 *** | 2.138 * |
(1.768) | (0.440) | (0.183) | (2.725) | (0.965) | |
Constant cut6 | 13.58 *** | 1.337 | 0.545 | 8.504 *** | 3.539 *** |
(6.033) | (0.603) | (0.242) | (3.780) | (1.606) | |
Constant cut7 | 14.57 *** | 1.961 | 0.697 | 13.39 *** | 4.852 *** |
(6.485) | (0.884) | (0.309) | (6.026) | (2.210) | |
Constant cut8 | 23.95 *** | 2.414 * | 0.945 | 20.21 *** | 9.386 *** |
(10.81) | (1.089) | (0.419) | (9.183) | (4.325) | |
Observations | 469 | 469 | 469 | 469 | 469 |
Pseudo R-squared | 0.0914 | 0.150 | 0.0454 | 0.0266 | 0.143 |
Variables | <5 Serving of Fruits and Vegetable Intake |
---|---|
Age group a + 35–44 years | 0.400 |
(0.228) | |
45–54 | 0.422 |
(0.244) | |
55–64 | 0.322 * |
(0.190) | |
65+ | 0.625 |
Education b | (0.424) |
Primary | 0.721 |
(0.348) | |
Secondary | 0.265 *** |
(0.135) | |
Higher Secondary+ | 0.290 ** |
(0.173) | |
Occupation c Self employed | 1.269 |
(1.003) | |
Agriculture | 0.970 |
(0.608) | |
Business | 0.616 |
(0.352) | |
Service | 1.141 |
(0.753) | |
Housewife | 10.31 * |
(12.61) | |
Unemployed | 1.285 |
(0.830) | |
Income/month (BDT) d 15000–30000 | 0.434 * |
(0.193) | |
>30000 | 0.314 ** |
(0.160) | |
Married | 0.448 |
(0.293) | |
Rural | 0.832 |
(0.411) | |
Female | 1.276 |
(0.554) | |
Presence of children <5 | 0.797 |
(0.163) | |
Smokes cigarettes | 1.452 |
(0.519) | |
Chews tobacco | 1.065 |
(0.393) | |
Physical activity | 1.666 |
(0.836) | |
Eats fast food | 2.517 *** |
(0.839) | |
Eat at the end | 2.773 *** |
(1.080) | |
Constant | 23.84 *** |
(19.34) | |
Observations | 469 |
Pseudo R-squared | 0.216 |
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Mustafa, S.; Haque, C.E.; Baksi, S. Low Daily Intake of Fruits and Vegetables in Rural and Urban Bangladesh: Influence of Socioeconomic and Demographic Factors, Social Food Beliefs and Behavioural Practices. Nutrients 2021, 13, 2808. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13082808
Mustafa S, Haque CE, Baksi S. Low Daily Intake of Fruits and Vegetables in Rural and Urban Bangladesh: Influence of Socioeconomic and Demographic Factors, Social Food Beliefs and Behavioural Practices. Nutrients. 2021; 13(8):2808. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13082808
Chicago/Turabian StyleMustafa, Sadia, C. Emdad Haque, and Soham Baksi. 2021. "Low Daily Intake of Fruits and Vegetables in Rural and Urban Bangladesh: Influence of Socioeconomic and Demographic Factors, Social Food Beliefs and Behavioural Practices" Nutrients 13, no. 8: 2808. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13082808