Association between Milk Consumption and Metabolic Syndrome among Korean Adults: Results from the Health Examinees Study
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Subjects and Methods
2.1. Study Population
2.2. Assessment of Milk and Dairy Food Consumption
2.3. Definition of Metabolic Syndrome
2.4. Covariates
2.5. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Acknowledgments
Author Contributions
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Milk Consumption | p-Value † | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Non or Rarely | ≤2/Week | 3–6/Week | ≥1/Day | |||
Men (N = 43,786) | 18,972 | 11,588 | 5936 | 7186 | ||
Age (years) | 54.2 ± 8.2 | 52.7 ± 8.4 | 53.0 ± 8.4 | 53.9 ± 8.6 | <0.0001 | |
BMI (kg/m2) | 24.4 ± 2.8 | 24.5 ± 2.7 | 24.4 ± 2.7 | 24.3 ± 2.7 | 0.0006 | |
≥College or above, n (%) | 6352 (34.0) | 4495 (39.2) | 2376 (40.6) | 2764 (38.9) | <0.0001 | |
Current smokers, n (%) | 6257 (33.1) | 3660 (31.7) | 1736 (29.4) | 2055 (28.7) | <0.0001 | |
Current drinkers, n (%) | 13,679 (72.2) | 8606 (74.4) | 4371 (73.8) | 5101 (71.2) | 0.5511 | |
Regular exercisers, n (%) | 10,152 (53.6) | 6698 (57.9) | 3584 (60.6) | 4477 (62.4) | <0.0001 | |
Dietary Intake | ||||||
Energy (kcal) | 1730.8 ± 437.3 | 1835.1 ± 449.6 | 1960.5 ± 468.3 | 2054.2 ± 492.8 | <0.0001 | |
Carbohydrate (g) | 312.8 ± 75.0 | 324.4 ± 76.5 | 338.3 ± 78.8 | 348.1 ± 83.3 | <0.0001 | |
Protein (g) | 56.6 ± 20.5 | 61.5 ± 20.6 | 68.3 ± 21.8 | 73.8 ± 23.1 | <0.0001 | |
Fat (g) | 25.5 ± 14.3 | 29.8 ± 14.5 | 34.9 ± 15.4 | 39.0 ± 16.0 | <0.0001 | |
Calcium (mg) | 325.2 ± 169.7 | 380.7 ± 167.6 | 509.3 ± 183.1 | 666.0 ± 234.9 | <0.0001 | |
Grain (g) | 643.9 ± 207.0 | 611.8 ± 192.3 | 572.9 ± 188.3 | 545.2 ± 189.1 | <0.0001 | |
Vegetable (g) | 129.3 ± 102.0 | 129.3 ± 92.6 | 137.9 ± 95.3 | 138.3 ± 97.1 | <0.0001 | |
Fruit (g) | 141.5 ± 144.0 | 140.6 ± 126.8 | 151.8 ± 132.0 | 160.7 ± 137.6 | <0.0001 | |
Meat (g) | 41.0 ± 34.9 | 43.5 ± 31.6 | 42.1 ± 31.1 | 38.2 ± 30.7 | <0.0001 | |
Non or Rarely | ≤2/Week | 3–6/Week | 1/Day | ≥2/Day | ||
Women (N = 86,738) | 30,025 | 21,970 | 14,529 | 17,608 | 2606 | |
Age, years | 53.1 ± 7.9 | 51.3 ± 7.7 | 51.5 ± 7.6 | 52.9 ± 7.7 | 52.2 ± 7.5 | <0.0001 |
BMI, kg/m2 | 23.7 ± 3.0 | 23.6 ± 3.0 | 23.5 ± 2.8 | 23.6 ± 2.9 | 23.5 ± 2.8 | <0.0001 |
≥ College or above, n (%) | 4799 (16.2) | 4578 (21.1) | 3239 (22.6) | 3639 (20.9) | 585 (22.8) | <0.0001 |
Current smokers, n (%) | 744 (2.5) | 424 (1.9) | 272 (1.9) | 369 (2.1) | 62 (2.4) | 0.0291 |
Current drinkers, n (%) | 8376 (28.0) | 7144 (32.6) | 4762 (33.0) | 5368 (30.6) | 787 (30.4) | <0.0001 |
Regular exercisers, n (%) | 13,814 (46.1) | 11,018 (50.2) | 7949 (54.8) | 9929 (56.5) | 1565 (60.3) | <0.0001 |
Dietary Intake | ||||||
Energy (kcal) | 1556.4 ± 456.2 | 1635.9 ± 466.3 | 1758.4 ± 484.5 | 1838.2 ± 489.5 | 2093.8 ± 555.7 | <0.0001 |
Carbohydrate (g) | 287.8 ± 81.9 | 295.9 ± 83.4 | 309.4 ± 85.4 | 318.1 ± 85.9 | 342.0 ± 95.7 | <0.0001 |
Protein (g) | 50.5 ± 20.0 | 54.2 ± 20.0 | 61.0 ± 21.3 | 65.7 ± 21.7 | 80.6 ± 27.3 | <0.0001 |
Fat (g) | 20.7 ± 12.8 | 24.4 ± 13.3 | 29.3 ± 14.3 | 32.6 ± 14.3 | 44.8 ± 17.1 | <0.0001 |
Calcium (mg) | 329.0 ± 184.2 | 380.2 ± 182.7 | 508.0 ± 194.4 | 633.5 ± 206.4 | 1053.1 ± 383.2 | <0.0001 |
Grain (g) | 572.4 ± 216.6 | 536.9 ± 201.8 | 497.0 ± 189.9 | 470.6 ± 184.9 | 387.8 ± 181.0 | <0.0001 |
Vegetable (g) | 150.7 ± 117.7 | 151.3 ± 110.9 | 158.9 ± 109.0 | 160.8 ± 109.4 | 181.0 ± 139.6 | <0.0001 |
Fruit (g) | 197.9 ± 184.1 | 202.8 ± 180.9 | 210.3 ± 171.1 | 219.5 ± 169.9 | 223.7 ± 190.7 | <0.0001 |
Meat (g) | 30.2 ± 30.2 | 33.5 ± 29.3 | 33.0 ± 28.7 | 30.4 ± 27.2 | 26.0 ± 24.5 | <0.0001 |
Metabolic Syndrome and Components | Milk Consumption | p-Trend † | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Non or Rarely | ≤2/Week | 3–6/Week | ≥1/Day | |||
Men (N = 43,682) | 18,972 | 11,588 | 5936 | 7186 | ||
MetS ‡ | 5715 (30.1) § | 3345 (28.9) | 1671 (28.2) | 1970 (27.4) | ||
Ref. | 0.94 (0.89–1.00) | 0.93 (0.86–1.00) | 0.92 (0.86–0.99) | 0.0160 | ||
WC ≥ 90 cm | 5607 (29.6) | 3453 (29.8) | 1703 (28.7) | 2005 (27.9) | ||
Ref. | 0.97 (0.91–1.04) | 0.9 (0.82–0.98) | 0.91 (0.84–0.99) | 0.0098 | ||
Serum TG ≥ 150 mg/dL | 7765 (40.9) | 4555 (39.3) | 2241 (37.8) | 2586 (36.0) | ||
Ref. | 0.91 (0.87–0.96) | 0.87 (0.82–0.93) | 0.84 (0.79–0.89) | <0.0001 | ||
Serum HDL-C ≤ 40 mg/dL | 4622 (24.4) | 2676 (23.1) | 1279 (21.5) | 1492 (20.8) | ||
Ref. | 0.95 (0.90–1.01) | 0.88 (0.82–0.94) | 0.83 (0.78–0.89) | <0.0001 | ||
BP ≥ 130/85 mmHg | 10,192 (53.7) | 5959 (51.4) | 3060 (51.5) | 3776 (52.5) | ||
Ref. | 0.94 (0.89–0.98) | 0.94 (0.89–1.00) | 0.99 (0.93–1.05) | 0.7007 | ||
FB ≥ 100 mg/dL | 6604 (34.8) | 3946 (34.1) | 2040 (34.4) | 2559 (35.6) | ||
Ref. | 0.98 (0.93–1.04) | 1.05 (0.97–1.14) | 1.07 (0.99–1.16) | 0.0500 | ||
Non or Rarely | ≤2/Week | 3–6/Week | 1/Day | ≥2/Day | ||
Women (N = 86,738) | 30,025 | 21,970 | 14,529 | 17,608 | 2606 | |
MetS | 7053 (23.5) | 6368 (29.0) | 3203 (22.0) | 4212 (23.9) | 502 (19.3) | |
Ref. | 0.88 (0.84–0.92) | 0.86 (0.82–0.91) | 0.85 (0.81–0.90) | 0.68 (0.60–0.76) | <0.0001 | |
WC ≥ 80 cm | 13,168 (43.9) | 8964 (40.8) | 5635 (38.8) | 7259 (41.2) | 979 (37.6) | |
Ref. | 0.97 (0.92–1.02) | 0.91 (0.86–0.96) | 0.94 (0.89–0.99) | 0.79 (0.71–0.89) | 0.0126 | |
Serum TG ≥ 150 mg/dL | 7579 (25.2) | 4858 (22.1) | 3051 (21.0) | 3899 (22.1) | 508 (19.5) | |
Ref. | 0.93 (0.89–0.97) | 0.87 (0.83–0.92) | 0.86 (0.82–0.90) | 0.76 (0.69–0.85) | <0.0001 | |
Serum HDL-C ≤ 50 mg/dL | 11,976 (39.9) | 7667 (34.9) | 4765 (32.8) | 5884 (33.4) | 724 (27.8) | |
Ref. | 0.87 (0.84–0.91) | 0.81 (0.77–0.84) | 0.78 (0.75–0.81) | 0.61 (0.56–0.67) | <0.0001 | |
BP ≥ 130/85 mmHg | 11,912 (39.7) | 7702 (35.1) | 5104 (35.1) | 6677 (37.9) | 893 (34.3) | |
Ref. | 0.95 (0.90–0.99) | 0.96 (0.91–1.02) | 1.01 (0.96–1.07) | 0.96 (0.86–1.08) | 0.3906 | |
FB ≥ 100 mg/dL | 6139 (20.4) | 4035 (18.4) | 2689 (18.5) | 3614 (20.5) | 495 (19.0) | |
Ref. | 0.97 (0.93–1.01) | 1.01 (0.96–1.06) | 1.07 (1.02–1.12) | 1.04 (0.93–1.15) | 0.0021 |
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Shin, S.; Lee, H.-W.; Kim, C.E.; Lim, J.; Lee, J.-k.; Kang, D. Association between Milk Consumption and Metabolic Syndrome among Korean Adults: Results from the Health Examinees Study. Nutrients 2017, 9, 1102. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu9101102
Shin S, Lee H-W, Kim CE, Lim J, Lee J-k, Kang D. Association between Milk Consumption and Metabolic Syndrome among Korean Adults: Results from the Health Examinees Study. Nutrients. 2017; 9(10):1102. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu9101102
Chicago/Turabian StyleShin, Sangah, Hwi-Won Lee, Claire E. Kim, Jiyeon Lim, Jong-koo Lee, and Daehee Kang. 2017. "Association between Milk Consumption and Metabolic Syndrome among Korean Adults: Results from the Health Examinees Study" Nutrients 9, no. 10: 1102. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu9101102