Key Technologies in Developing Chip-Scale Hot Atomic Devices for Precision Quantum Metrology
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Vapor Cells
2.1. Glass-Blowing Technique
2.2. MEMS Vapor Cell Fabrication
2.2.1. Introduction of Alkali Atoms and Gases
Pure Alkali Metal
Chemical Reaction
Electrolytic Alkali Metal
2.2.2. The Bonding Techniques
2.2.3. Cells for Dual-Beam Configurations
2.2.4. Cell Insulation
3. Lasers
3.1. Edge-Emitting Laser Diodes
3.2. Surface-Emitting Laser Diodes
- Beam quality: VCSELs emit light from a circularly symmetric aperture, creating a spot with a small divergence angle. This symmetry facilitates simple, low-cost, and efficient coupling through basic beam shaping systems. In contrast, edge-emitting lasers produce elliptical spots with aspect ratios up to 100:1, often requiring additional beam shaping systems.
- Low threshold: The small active region in VCSELs enables low threshold lasing, potentially down to the microampere level.
- Absence of facet damage: The reflectors in VCSELs are epitaxially grown DBRs, which prevents optical damage to the laser cavity facets.
- Stability and reliability: The refractive index of the semiconductor materials used in VCSELs varies minimally with temperature changes, leading to minimal wavelength drift. Additionally, VCSELs operate effectively across a broad temperature range.
- Single-mode output: The resonant cavity length of VCSELs is very short, often just a few micrometers, with large separation between longitudinal modes. This typically results in a single longitudinal-mode output and a higher relaxation oscillation frequency.
- Large-scale two-dimensional arrays: The perpendicular emission direction of VCSELs relative to the substrate facilitates the integration of large-scale two-dimensional arrays. This alignment also removes the need for cleaving, enabling low-cost fabrication and testing, as well as high-density integration with high power output.
3.3. Potentials of VCSELs
- Optical Power
- Beam Quality
- Linewidth
3.4. Laser Heating
3.5. Optical Elements
4. Coils
- Glass substrate cleaning: Take the quartz glass with a length and width of 70 mm and a thickness of 0.55 mm, clean the surface of the glass substrate with an ultrasonic cleaner and deionized water, and dry it with a drying oven.
- ITO magnetron sputtering coating: Evenly coat the cleaned glass substrate with a layer of ITO (film thickness of about 200 nm).
- Coating photoresist: The use of homogenizer in the glass coated with ITO side should be evenly coated with a layer of photoresist, photoresist model AZ1500.
- Photolithography + development + etching: The production of a good pattern mask, the use of model URE-2000/35 photolithography in the photoresist engraved with the desired pattern, with the ZX-238 positive gel developer to remove the exposed area, leaving the unexposed area, and then soaked in 20% of dilute hydrochloric acid etching is not covered by the photoresist area.
- De-gumming: The use of AZ400T de-gumming solution to remove excess photoresist.
- Point coating conductive silver glue: The use of high concentrations of quick-drying conductive silver glue connected to the upper and lower pins.
- Buckle insulation: The two pieces of surface circuitry engraved on the surface of the mutual buckle and the use of transparent insulating high-temperature double-sided tape to prevent short circuits.
- Lead electrode: from the glass surface pins with conductive silver paste lead to the positive and negative poles.
4.1. Rigid MEMS Coils
4.2. Flexible MEMS Coils
4.3. Other Types of Electric Heaters
4.4. Coils for Uniform Magnetic Fields
5. Conclusions and Discussion
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
CSAC | Chip-scale atomic clock |
DAVLL | Dichroic atomic vapor laser lock |
DBR | Distributed Bragg reflector |
DFB | Distributed feedback |
FPC | Flexible printed circuits |
ITO | Indium tin oxide |
MEMS | Micro-electro-mechanical system |
NMRG | Nuclear magnetic resonance gyroscope |
OPM | Optical pump magnetometer |
OPSR | Orthogonal polarization suppression ratio |
PID | Proportional–integral–derivative |
SERF | Spin-exchange relaxation-free |
VCSEL | Vertical-cavity surface-emitting laser |
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Manufacturer | Series | Package | Wavelength (nm) | Linewidth (MHz) | Power (mW) | SMSR (dB) | OPSR (dB) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Thorlabs | DBR795PN | Butterfly | 795 | 1 | 40 | 50 | 16 |
Photodigm | PH795DBR | Butterfly/TO | 795 | 0.7 | 20–180 | 30 | 19 |
Toptica Eagleyard | EYP-DFB-0795 | Butterfly | 795 | 0.6 | 40–80 | 30 | - |
Sacher Lasertechnic | DFB-0795-080 | TO | 795 | 1.5 | 80 | - | - |
Institute | Year | Wavelength (nm) | Linewidth (MHz) | Power (mW) | SMSR (dB) | OPSR (dB) | Temperature (°C) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
NIST [58] | 2000 | 852 | 50 | 0.87 | - | - | 31.2 |
NIST [59] | 2007 | 795 | - | 0.01 | - | - | - |
Uni-Ulm [61] | 2005 | 850 | - | 3.2 | 40 | 24 | - |
Uni-Ulm [62] | 2008 | 895 | - | 8 | 25 | - | - |
Uni-Ulm [63] | 2013 | 895 | - | 0.9 | 40 | 21 | 23 |
SNL [64] | 2007 | 795, 850 | - | 3 | - | 15 | 85 |
ISP SB RAS [65] | 2009 | 795 | - | 0.2 | 30 | - | - |
Ioffe Institute, RAS [66] | 2018 | 895 | 50 | 1 | - | 20 | 65 |
NUC [67] | 2009 | 795 | - | 0.5 | - | - | 75 |
UNINE [68] | 2013 | 895 | 20 | 0.7 | 42 | 22.7 | 23 |
Princeton Optronics [69] | 2015 | 780, 795, 850 | - | 40 | 50 | 20 | - |
CST [70] | 2019 | 895 | 50 | 1 | 33 | 15 | 70 |
BJUT [71] | 2020 | 895 | - | 0.86 | 20 | - | - |
CAS [72] | 2013 | 795 | - | 1 | - | - | 72 |
CAS [73] | 2014 | 795 | 0.3 | 17 | - | - | 52 |
CAS [74] | 2015 | 895 | - | - | 25 | - | 110 |
CAS [75] | 2017 | 895 | - | 0.45 | 30 | - | 80 |
CAS [76] | 2018 | 894 | - | 0.55 | - | 32 | 80 |
CAS [52] | 2022 | 894 | - | 2.02 | 29.2 | 20 | 92 |
CAS [56] | 2022 | 795 | - | 4.1 | 41.68 | 27.4 | 80 |
II-VI Laser [104] | 2012 | 795 | - | 1 | 20 | 10 | 50 |
Vixar [105] | 2014 | 895 | - | 0.1 | 20 | 16 | 80 |
Melting Point (°C) | Solid | Liquid | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
A | B | A | B | ||
Cs | 28.5 | 4.711 | 3999 | 4.165 | 3830 |
Rb | 39.3 | 4.857 | 4215 | 4.312 | 4040 |
K | 63.5 | 4.961 | 4646 | 4.402 | 4453 |
Na | 97.8 | 5.298 | 5603 | 4.704 | 5377 |
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Yu, H.; Zhang, X.; Zhang, J.; Wu, Z.; Jiao, L.; Li, K.; Zheng, W. Key Technologies in Developing Chip-Scale Hot Atomic Devices for Precision Quantum Metrology. Micromachines 2024, 15, 1095. https://doi.org/10.3390/mi15091095
Yu H, Zhang X, Zhang J, Wu Z, Jiao L, Li K, Zheng W. Key Technologies in Developing Chip-Scale Hot Atomic Devices for Precision Quantum Metrology. Micromachines. 2024; 15(9):1095. https://doi.org/10.3390/mi15091095
Chicago/Turabian StyleYu, Huiyao, Xuyuan Zhang, Jian Zhang, Zhendong Wu, Long Jiao, Kan Li, and Wenqiang Zheng. 2024. "Key Technologies in Developing Chip-Scale Hot Atomic Devices for Precision Quantum Metrology" Micromachines 15, no. 9: 1095. https://doi.org/10.3390/mi15091095