Towards Sustainable Application of Wastewater in Agriculture: A Review on Reusability and Risk Assessment
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
- (1)
- Definition of wastewater and its types;
- (2)
- Reclaimed-water uses in agriculture and its prospects;
- (3)
- Risk associated with wastewater usage;
- (4)
- Management approaches for sustainable wastewater treatment systems.
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Brief historical Perspectives of Wastewater
3.2. Wastewater as Reclaimed Water
3.2.1. Blackwater
3.2.2. Graywater
3.2.3. Stormwater
3.3. How Is Reclaimed Water Produced?
3.4. Reclaimed-Water Uses in Agriculture and Its Prospects
3.5. Risks Associated with Wastewater Use for Agriculture
3.6. Mitigating the Risks Associated with Wastewater Reuse
3.7. Microbial Risks to Public Health
3.8. Chemically Risks to Human Health
3.9. Plant Health Risks
3.10. Environmental Risks
4. WHO Permissible Limits for Micro-Organisms Treated Sewage for Agriculture
5. Challenges in Wastewater Irrigation
6. Management Approaches for Sustainable Wastewater Treatment Systems
6.1. Natural Purification and Green Economy
6.2. Crop Selection and Diversification
6.3. Soil Amendments
6.4. Public Awareness
6.5. Promotion of Research and Outreach Programs
7. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Country | Population | Surface Area | Agriculture Value | Total Water Withdrawals | Produced Water | Treated Wastewater | Treated Wastewater Reuse |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Population | (km2) | (% GDP) | (106 m3/year) | Non-Conventional Water Sources (106 m3/year) | |||
Bahrain | 1,569,439 | 778 | 0.3 | 357.4 | 44.9 | 61.9 | 16.3 |
Egypt | 98,423,595 | 1,001,450 | 11.2 | 78,000 | 7078 | 4013 | 1300 |
Jordan | 9,956,011 | 89,320 | 5.6 | 940.9 | - | 107.4 | 83.5 |
Kuwait | 4,137,309 | 17,820 | 0.5 | 913.2 | 244 | 250 | 78 |
Oman | 4,829,483 | 309,500 | 2.2 | 1321 | 90 | 37 | 37 |
Qatar | 1,569,439 | 11,610 | 0.2 | 444 | 55 | 58 | 43 |
KSA | 33699947 | 2,149,690 | 2.2 | 23,666 | 20,826 | 547.5 | 166 |
UAE | 9630959 | 83,600 | 0.7 | 3998 | 500 | 289 | 248 |
Lebanon | 6,848,925 | 10,450 | 2.9 | 1310 | 310 | 4 | 2 |
Parameter | Unit | Domestic | Urban | Industrial |
---|---|---|---|---|
pH | - | 7.7–8.1 | 7.08–8.24 | 7.16–8.1 |
EC | μS/cm | - | 165–3680 | - |
COD | mg/L | 515–1450 | 460–5490 | 835–1680 |
BOD5 | mg/L | - | 290–3480 | 420–1420 |
NH4-N | mg/L | 120–155 | - | 109.30–171.48 |
TKN | mg/L | 140–187 | 9.55–142.88 | 117–178 |
Total Nitrogen | mg/L | 117.2–178.40 | - | - |
TDS | mg/L | 716–983 | ||
TSS | mg/L | 270–800 | 375–5400 | 212–486 |
VSS | mg/L | 190–590 | - | - |
Total Phosphate | mg/L | - | 2.36–40.33 | 17.9–35.4 |
Alkalinity, CaCO3 | mg/L | 580–740 | - | - |
Turbidity | NTU | - | - | 80–205 |
COD/TKN | - | 3.7–7.8 | - | - |
Parameter | Unit | Black Wastewater | Gray Wastewater | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Concentration Levels (* Low to ** High) | |||||
COD | mg/L | 900–1500 | 806–3138 | 200–700 | 495–685 |
BOD5 | mg/L | 300–600 | 410–1400 | 40–100 | 350–500 |
Nitrogen | mg/L | 100–300 | 130–180 | 8–30 | 8–11 |
Phosphorus | mg/L | 20–40 | 21–58 | 2–7 | 4.6–11 |
Potassium *** | mg/L | 40–90 | 40 | 2–6 | 8–10 |
Parameter | Unit | Domestic | Urban | Industrial |
---|---|---|---|---|
pH | - | 6.9–8.1 | - | - |
EC | S/cm | 34–224 | - | - |
COD | mg/L | 10.7–79.2 | - | - |
BOD5 | mg/L | 1.7–6.4 | - | - |
TDS | mg/L | 20–86 | - | - |
TSS | mg/L | 22.6–231 | 112.07–142.76 | 35.57–50.84 |
Total Phosphate | mg/L | 0.5–2 | 0.13–0.17 | 0.09–0.12 |
Total Alkalinity | mg/L | 9–50 | - | - |
Turbidity | NTU | 36–188 | - | - |
TOC | mg/L | 0–19 | 2.04–2.33 | 1.50–2.03 |
Calcium | mg/L | 4–24 | - | - |
Sodium | mg/L | 1.7–5 | - | - |
Potassium | mg/L | 1.7–4.5 | - | - |
Magnesium | mg/L | 0.2–1 | - | - |
Zinc | mg/L | 0–0.4 | 0.2–0.21 | 0.38–0.45 |
Copper | mg/L | 0–0.1 | 0.2–0.21 | 0.03–0.09 |
Iron | mg/L | 0.1–0.7 | 1.88–3.0 | 1.24–1.89 |
Lead | mg/L | 0–0.2 | - | |
TN | mg/L | 1.11–1.85 | 1.08–1.61 | |
NO3-N | mg/L | 0.29–0.72 | 0.58–0.61 | |
NH4-N | mg/L | 0.11–0.27 | 0.07–0.42 |
Hazard | Exposure Route | Relative Importance |
---|---|---|
Excreta-related pathogens | ||
Bacterial infections (i.e., E-coli, Vibrio-cholera, Shigella spp., and Salmonella spp.) | Contact; food intake | Low–high |
Helminths | Contact; food intake | Low–high |
• Soil transmitting pathogens (Ascaris, Taenia spp., and hookworms) | Contact; food intake | Nil–high |
• Schistosoma spp. | Contact | Low–medium |
Protozoa-pathogens (Giardia-intestinalis, Cryptosporidium, and Entamoeba spp.) | Contact; food intake | Low–medium |
Viruses (i.e., hepatitis A, hepatitis E, adenovirus, rotavirus, and norovirus) | Contact; food intake | Low–high |
Skin irritants and infections | ||
Vector borne-pathogens (Filaria spp., Japanese encephalitis-virus, and Plasmodium spp.) | Vector contact | Nil–medium |
Chemicals | ||
Trace elements and heavy metals (e.g., As, Pb, Cd, and Hg) | Food intake | Generally low |
Halogenated hydrocarbons (dioxin, furan, and PCBs) | Food intake | Low |
Pesticidal infections (aldrin-DDT) | Contact; food intake | Low |
Hazard | Mitigation | Reference |
---|---|---|
Excreta-related pathogens
|
| [105] |
Skin irritants and infections
|
| [106] |
Type | Reuse | Visible Groups a | Colonic Nematodes (No. of Eggs per Liter) b | Fecal Coliforms (No. of Eggs per 100 mL) c | Sewage-Treated Anticipated Microbial Quality |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
A | Irrigated crops, uncooked food consumption, sports fields, and public parks | Workers, consumers, public | 1 | 1000 d | Stabilized ponds indicated with quality microbes for the treatment |
B | Cereal, fodder, pasture, trees, and industrial crops | Workers | 1 | No standard recommended | A total of 8–10 days retention time may increase the treatment for removing fecal coliform removal |
C | Locally irrigated crops | None | Not applicable | Not applicable | Treatment techniques may reduce from primary sedimentation |
Water Source | Total Coliform | Fecal Coliform | Thermotolerant Coliforms | Fecal Enterococci | Fecal Streptococci | E. coli | References |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Clothes wash | 8.5–8.9 | 0.9–1.6 | - | - | 1–1.3 | - | [112] |
Clothes rinse | 1.9–1.5 | 3.5–7.1 | - | - | 1–1.23 | - | [112] |
Washing | 7 | 7.28 | - | - | - | - | [113] |
Laundry | 3.4–5.5 | 1.1–10.9 | 2.0–3.0 | 1.4–3.4 | 2.3–2.4 | - | [113] |
Hand basin/shower | 2.7–7.4 | - | 2.2–3.5 | 1.9–3.4 | 4.4 | [114] | |
Graywater | 7.9 | - | 5.8 | 2.4 | 3.2–5.1 | [111] | |
Laundry—wash | 1.9–5.9 | 1.99 | 1.0–4.2 | 1.5–3.9 | 1.26 | [115,116] | |
Laundry—rinse | 2.3–5.2 | 5.6 | 0–5.4 | 0–6.1 | 2.5 | [116,117] | |
Kitchen sink | - | - | 7.6 | 7.7 | 7.4 | [116] |
Microbes | Concentration per Liter (Untreated Wastewater) | Microbes | Concentration (Mean Values) (log10 100 mL−1) | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|
Fecal coliforms | 106–1010 | Total coliform | 8.1 | [124] |
Enteroviruses | 1–1000 | E. coliform | 6.0 | [125] |
Rotaviruses | 50–5000 | Fecal enterococci | 4.4 | [126] |
Cryptosporidium | 1–10,000 | C. perfringens spores | 3.3 | [127] |
Crops | Algeria | Egypt | Saudi Arabia | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Pb | Cr | Cu | Zn | Pb | Cr | Cu | Zn | Pb | Cr | Cu | Zn | |
Potato | 1.79 | 0.89 | 3.02 | 0.60 | 0.1 | - | 0.83 | 7.16 | 1.51 | - | 6.41 | 17.65 |
Tomato | 12.46 | 6.23 | 3.03 | 0.61 | 0.26 | - | 1.83 | 7.79 | 2.78 | - | 7.46 | 22.91 |
Cucumber | 9.34 | 4.67 | 2.46 | 0.49 | 0.19 | - | 5.69 | 9.90 | 6.98 | - | 7.18 | 22.30 |
Chemical Constituents | Concentrations (ng/L) | Acceptable Limits | Reference | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Influent (Avg.) | Effluent (Avg.) | (µg/kg-day) | ||
Sulfapyridine | 251.7 | 99.9 | 4.8 | [133] |
Sulfamethazine | 23.7 | 11.0 | 9.5 | [134] |
Sulfamethoxazole | 161.8 | 75.1 | 3.8 | [135] |
Ciprofloxacin | 862.7 | 543.4 | 0.48 | [136] |
Ofloxacin | 845.9 | 510.8 | 1.9 | [133] |
Risperidone | 244.8 | 13.2 | 3.3 | [137] |
High Uptake | Moderate Uptake | Low Uptake | Very Low Uptake |
---|---|---|---|
Lettuce | Kale | Cabbage leaves | Snap beans |
Spinach | Collard | Sweet corn | Chickpea |
Chard | Beets | Broccoli plant | Melon family |
Escarole | Turnips | Cauliflower | Tomato crop |
Endive | Radish globe | Brussels sprouts | Pepper plant |
Cress | Mustard plants | Celery | Eggplant |
Turnip, green | Potatoes | Berry fruit | Fruits plants |
Beet, green | Onion |
Parameters | Fit for Irrigation | Moderate Fit | Unsuitable for Irrigation |
---|---|---|---|
Salinity levels (EC), µS/cm | <700 | 700–3000 | >3000 |
TDS, mg/L | <450 | 450–2000 | >2000 |
SAR, (mmoles/L)0.5 | <3 | 3–9 | >9 |
Chlorides (Cl−), mg/L | <4 | 4–10 | >10 |
Parameters | Units | WHO | USEPA | Oman | UAE | Jordan | Egypt | Algerian | EU |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Electrical Conductivity (EC) | µS/cm | 2225 | ≤700 | - | - | - | ≤700 | - | ≤1000 |
Hydrogen Ions (pH) | - | 4–8.6 | 6.9 | 6–9 | 7–9.2 | 6–9 | 6.5–8.5 | 6.5–8.5 | 6.5–8.4 |
TDS | mg/L | 2500 | - | 1000 | 100–1000 | 1500 | - | - | - |
TSS | mg/L | 40 | - | 10 | - | 50 | ≤15 | 30 | 35–60 |
Turbidity | NTU | 2 | ≤2 | 2 | 4 | 10 | ≤10 | - | ≤10 |
Sodium (Na+) | mg/L | 250 | - | 70 | 150 | 230 | - | - | - |
Calcium (Ca2+) | mg/L | 450 | - | - | - | 230 | - | - | - |
Magnesium (Mg2+) | mg/L | 80 | - | 30 | 0.4 | 100 | - | - | - |
Potassium (K+) | mg/L | 100 | - | - | 12 | - | - | - | - |
BOD5 | mg/L | 40 | ≤10 | 10 | 5 | 30 | ≤15 | 30 | 25 |
COD | mg/L | 100 | - | 50 | 50 | 100 | ≤30 | 90 | 125 |
NH3-N | mg/L | 50 | - | 1 | 0.5 | - | - | 30 | - |
NO3− | mg/L | 30 | - | - | 50 | 30 | - | - | - |
NO2− | mg/L | - | - | - | 3 | - | - | - | - |
Ammonium-Ion (NH4+) | mg/L | 5 | - | 30 | - | - | - | - | - |
Phosphate (PO42−) | mg/L | 25 | - | 20 | 2.2 | 30 | ≤2 | 2 | 15 |
Sulfates (SO42−) | mg/L | - | - | 200 | 250 | 500 | - | - | - |
Boron (B) | mg/L | 0.70 | 0.75 | 1 | 2.4 | 1 | 0.5 | - | - |
Aluminum (Al) | mg/L | 5 | 5 | 1 | 0.2 | 5 | - | - | 5.0 |
Lithium (Li) | mg/L | 2.5 | 2.5 | 2.5 | - | 2.5 | - | - | 2.5 |
Cadmium (Cd) | mg/L | 0.01 | 0.01 | 0.01 | 0.003 | 0.01 | 0.001 | - | 0.01 |
Arsenic (As) | mg/L | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0.05 | 0.01 | 0.1 | 0.01 | - | 0.1 |
Chlorides (Cl−) | mg/L | - | - | 250 | 250 | 400 | - | - | - |
Fluorides (F−) | mg/L | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1.5 | 1.5 | 0.5 | - | 1.0 |
Nickel (Ni) | mg/L | 0.2 | 0.2 | 0.2 | 0.07 | 0.2 | 0.2 | - | 0.2 |
Fe | mg/L | 5 | 5 | 1 | 0.2 | 5 | 0.5 | - | 5.0 |
Cr | mg/L | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0.5 | 0.1 | 0.05 | 5 | 0.1 |
Pb | mg/L | 5 | 5 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 5 | 0.01 | 10 | 5.0 |
Zn | mg/L | 2 | 2 | 2 | 5 | 5 | 0.01 | 10 | 2.0 |
Cu | mg/L | 0.2 | 0.2 | 0.2 | 1 | 0.2 | 0.01 | 0.5 | 0.2 |
Mercury (Hg) | mg/L | - | - | 0.001 | 0.006 | 0.002 | 0.001 | - | - |
Beryllium (Be) | mg/L | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0.1 | - | 0.1 | - | - | 0.1 |
Cobalt (Co) | mg/L | 0.05 | 0.05 | 0.1 | - | 0.05 | - | - | 0.05 |
Manganese (Mn) | mg/L | 0.2 | 0.2 | 0.2 | - | 0.2 | 0.2 | - | 0.2 |
Molybdenum (Mb) | mg/L | 0.01 | 0.01 | 0.01 | - | 0.01 | 0.07 | - | 0.01 |
Selenium (Se) | mg/L | 0.02 | 0.02 | - | - | 0.05 | 0.01 | - | 0.02 |
Temperature (T) | °C | - | - | 30 | 25 | 30 | - | 30 | - |
TKN | mg/L | - | - | 5 | - | 45 | - | 30 | 2 |
TOC | mg/L | - | - | 20 | 1 | - | ≤3.5 | - | - |
Hardness-CaCO3 (TH) | mg/L | - | - | - | 300 | 400 | - | - | - |
Free Chlorine (FRC) | mg/L | - | - | 0.5 | 0.2–0.5 | - | - | - | - |
Total-Coliform (T. Coli) | MPN/100 mL | ≤1000 CFU | ≤200 CFU | 100 | ≤10 CFU | - | ≤100 |
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Khan, M.M.; Siddiqi, S.A.; Farooque, A.A.; Iqbal, Q.; Shahid, S.A.; Akram, M.T.; Rahman, S.; Al-Busaidi, W.; Khan, I. Towards Sustainable Application of Wastewater in Agriculture: A Review on Reusability and Risk Assessment. Agronomy 2022, 12, 1397. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy12061397
Khan MM, Siddiqi SA, Farooque AA, Iqbal Q, Shahid SA, Akram MT, Rahman S, Al-Busaidi W, Khan I. Towards Sustainable Application of Wastewater in Agriculture: A Review on Reusability and Risk Assessment. Agronomy. 2022; 12(6):1397. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy12061397
Chicago/Turabian StyleKhan, Muhammad Mumtaz, Sajjad Ahmad Siddiqi, Aitazaz A. Farooque, Qumer Iqbal, Shabbir Ahmad Shahid, Muhammad Tahir Akram, Sadik Rahman, Waleed Al-Busaidi, and Imran Khan. 2022. "Towards Sustainable Application of Wastewater in Agriculture: A Review on Reusability and Risk Assessment" Agronomy 12, no. 6: 1397. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy12061397