Effect of Drought, Nitrogen Fertilization, Temperature and Photoperiodicity on Quinoa Plant Growth and Development in the Sahel
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Experimental Setup
2.2. Sampling and Measurement
2.3. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Debaeke, P.; Aboudrare, A. Adaptation of crop management to water-limited environments. Eur. J. Agron. 2004, 21, 433–446. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Giannini, A.; Biasutti, M.; Held, I.M.; Sobel, A.H. A global perspective on African climate. Clim. Chang. 2008, 90, 359–383. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA). The Sahel: Converging Challenges, Compounds and Risks. Available online: https://reliefweb.int (accessed on 8 July 2019).
- Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO). Action Against Desertification: Burkina Faso. Available online: http://www.fao.org (accessed on 8 July 2019).
- Roudier, P.; Sultan, B.; Quirion, P.; Berg, A. The impact of future climate change on West African crop yields: What does the recent literature say? Glob. Environ. Chang. 2011, 21, 1073–1083. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Berg, A.; de Noblet-Ducoudré, N.; Sultan, B.; Lengaigne, M.; Guimberteau, M. Projections of climate change impacts on potential C4 crop productivity over tropical regions. Agric. For. Meteorol. 2013, 170, 89–102. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Jones, P.G.; Thornton, P.K. The potential impacts of climate change on maize production in Africa and Latin America in 2055. Glob. Environ. Chang. 2003, 13, 51–59. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Salack, S.; Traoré, S. Impacts des Changements Climatiques sur la Production du mil et du Sorgho dans les Sites Pilotes du Plateau Central, de Tahoua et de Fakara; CILSS: Niamey, Niger, 2006. [Google Scholar]
- Schlenker, W.; Lobell, D.B. Robust negative impacts of climate change on African agriculture. Environ. Res. Lett. 2010, 5, 014010. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sage, R.F.; Zhu, X.G. Exploiting the engine of C4 photosynthesis. J. Exp. Bot. 2011, 62, 2989–3000. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Kimball, B.A. Carbon dioxide and agricultural yield: An assemblage and analysis of 430 prior observations 1. Agron. J. 1983, 75, 779–788. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Poorter, H. Interspecific variation in the growth response of plants to an elevated ambient CO2 concentration. In CO2 and Biosphere; Springer: Dordrecht, The Netherlands, 1993; pp. 77–98. ISBN 978-94-011-1797-5. [Google Scholar]
- Koziol, M.J. Chemical composition and nutritional evaluation of quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.). J. Food Compos. Anal. 1992, 5, 35–68. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Jacobsen, S.E.; Mujica, A.; Jensen, C.R. The resistance of quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) to adverse abiotic factors. Food Rev. Int. 2003, 19, 99–109. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bazile, D.; Jacobsen, S.E.; Verniau, A. The global expansion of quinoa: Trends and limits. Front. Plant Sci. 2016, 7, 622. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Bhargava, A.; Shukla, S.; Ohri, D. Genetic variability and interrelationship among various morphological and quality traits in quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.). Field Crops Res. 2007, 101, 104–116. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Razzaghi, F.; Ahmadi, S.H.; Adolf, V.I.; Jensen, C.R.; Jacobsen, S.E.; Andersen, M.N. Water relations and transpiration of quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) under salinity and soil drying. J. Agron. Crop Sci. 2011, 197, 348–360. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Adolf, V.I.; Jacobsen, S.E.; Shabala, S. Salt tolerance mechanisms in quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.). Environ. Exp. Bot. 2013, 92, 43–54. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Azurita-Silva, A.; Jacobsen, S.E.; Razzaghi, F.; Alvarez-Flores, R.; Ruiz, K.; Morales, A.; Herman, S. Quinoa drought responses and adaptation. In State of the Art Report of Quinoa in the World in 2013; FAO and CIRAD: Rome, Italy, 2015; pp. 157–171. ISBN 978-92-5-108558-5. [Google Scholar]
- Alvar-Beltrán, J.; Saturnin, C.; Dao, A.; Dalla Marta, A.; Sanou, J.; Orlandini, S. Effect of drought and nitrogen fertilisation on quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) under field conditions in Burkina Faso. Ital. J. Agrometeorol. 2019, 1, 33–44. [Google Scholar]
- Geerts, S.; Raes, D. Deficit irrigation as an on-farm strategy to maximize crop water productivity in dry areas. Agric. Water Manag. 2009, 96, 1275–1284. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Kaul, H.P.; Kruse, M.; Aufhammer, W. Yield and nitrogen utilization efficiency of the pseudocereals amaranth, quinoa, and buckwheat under differing nitrogen fertilization. Eur. J. Agron. 2005, 22, 95–100. [Google Scholar]
- Razzaghi, F.; Plauborg, F.; Jacobsen, S.E.; Jensen, C.R.; Andersen, M.N. Effect of nitrogen and water availability of three soil types on yield, radiation use efficiency and evapotranspiration in field-grown quinoa. Agric. Water Manag. 2012, 109, 20–29. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Moreale, A. In the Quinoa Project: Wageningen University. Available online: http://edepot.wur.nl/354101 (accessed on 9 July 2019).
- Hargreaves, G.H.; Samani, Z.A. Reference crop evapotranspiration from temperature. Appl. Eng. Agric. 1985, 1, 96–99. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Allen, R.G.; Pereira, L.S.; Raes, D.; Smith, M. Guidelines for computing crop water requirements. In Crop Evapotranspiration; FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper 56; FAO: Rome, Italy, 1998; Volume 300. [Google Scholar]
- Andres, P.; Tyson, E.O. Canopeo: A powerful new tool for measuring fractional green canopy cover. Agron. J. 2015, 107, 2312–2320. [Google Scholar]
- Jacobsen, S.E.; Bach, A.P. The influence of temperature on seed germination rate in quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.). Seed Sci. Technol. 1998, 26, 515–523. [Google Scholar]
- Garcia, M.; Condori, B.; Castillo, C.D. Agroecological and agronomic cultural practices of quinoa in South America. Quinoa Improv. Sustain. Prod. 2015, 25–46. [Google Scholar]
- Gifford, R.M.; Thorne, J.H.; Hitz, W.D.; Giaquinta, R.T. Crop productivity and photoassimilate partitioning. Science 1984, 225, 801–808. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Yoshida, S. Fundamentals of Rice Crop Science; The International Rice Research Institute: Los Baños, Laguna, Philippines, 1981; p. 269. [Google Scholar]
- Crafts-Brandner, S.J.; Salvucci, M.E. Sensitivity of photosynthesis in a C4 plant, maize, to heat stress. Plant Physiol. 2002, 129, 1773–1780. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Prasad, P.V.; Boote, K.J.; Allen, L.H., Jr. Adverse high temperature effects on pollen viability, seed-set, seed yield and harvest index of grain-sorghum [Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench] are more severe at elevated carbon dioxide due to higher tissue temperatures. Agric. For. Meteorol. 2006, 139, 237–251. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bertero, H.D.; King, R.W.; Hall, A.J. Photoperiod and temperature effects on the rate of leaf appearance in quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa). Funct. Plant Biol. 2000, 27, 349–356. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Saeed, A.L. Yemen Progress Report on Quinoa. Available online: http://quinoa.agrinnovation.net/ (accessed on 6 May 2017).
- Hassan, L. Iraq Final Evaluation Report on Quinoa; FAO: Rome, Italy, 2015. [Google Scholar]
- Präger, A.; Munz, S.; Nkebiwe, P.; Mast, B.; Graeff-Hönninger, S. Yield and quality characteristics of different quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) cultivars grown under field conditions in Southwestern Germany. Agronomy 2018, 8, 197. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Geerts, S.; Raes, D.; Garcia, M.; Vacher, J.; Mamani, R.; Mendoza, J.; Taboada, C. Introducing deficit irrigation to stabilize yields of quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.). Eur. J. Agron. 2008, 28, 427–436. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Garcia, M.; Raes, D.; Jacobsen, S.E. Evapotranspiration analysis and irrigation requirements of quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa) in the Bolivian highlands. Agric. Water Manag. 2003, 60, 119–134. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hirich, A.; Choukr-Allah, R.; Jacobsen, S.E. Deficit irrigation and organic compost improve growth and yield of quinoa and pea. J. Agron. Crop Sci. 2014, 200, 390–398. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Shams, A.S. Response of quinoa to nitrogen fertilizer rates under sandy soil conditions. In Proceedings 13th International Conference Agronomy, Faculty of Agriculture; Benha University: Benha, Egypt, 2012; pp. 9–10. [Google Scholar]
- Atkinson, D.; Porter, J.R. Temperature, plant development and crop yields. Trends Plant Sci. 1996, 1, 119–124. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Geerts, S.; Raes, D.; Garcia, M.; Condori, O.; Mamani, J.; Miranda, R.; Vacher, J. Could deficit irrigation be a sustainable practice for quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) in the Southern Bolivian Altiplano? Agric. Water Manag. 2008, 95, 909–917. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Yazar, A.; Incekaya, Ç.; Sezen, S.-M.; Tekin, S. Quinoa experimentation and production in Turkey. In State of the Art Report of Quinoa in the World in 2013; FAO: Rome, Italy, 2015; pp. 466–477. [Google Scholar]
- Wiegand, C.L.; Cuellar, J.A. Duration of grain filling and kernel weight of wheat as affected by temparature 1. Crop Sci. 1981, 21, 95–101. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Daddow, R.L.; Warrington, G. Growth-Limiting Soil Bulk Densities as Influenced by Soil Texture; Watershed Systems Development Group: Fort Collins, CO, USA, 1983; p. 17. [Google Scholar]
- Alvarez Flores, R.A. Réponses Morphologiques et Architecturales du Système Racinaire au Déficit Hydrique chez des Chenopodium Cultivés et Sauvages d'Amérique Andine. Ph.D. Thesis, Université de Montpellier, Montpellier, France, 2012. [Google Scholar]
2017–2018 | 2018–2019 | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Parameter | Depth/Unit | 0–20 cm | 20–40 cm | 0–20 cm | 20–40 cm |
Sand | % | 67.2 | 54.6 | 75.3 | 59.5 |
Silt | % | 17.6 | 16.5 | 14.8 | 12.7 |
Clay | % | 15.2 | 28.9 | 9.9 | 27.8 |
Texture | Sandy–Loam | Sandy–Clay–Loam | Loamy–Sand | Sandy–Clay–Loam | |
pH (H2O) | 6.51 | 5.95 | 6.09 | 5.87 | |
C | % | 0.28 | 0.23 | 0.35 | 0.30 |
Organic matter | % | 0.48 | 0.39 | 0.60 | 0.51 |
N | % | 0.032 | 0.026 | 0.036 | 0.028 |
C/N | 8.8 | 8.7 | 9.8 | 10.6 | |
P available | mg kg−1 | 4.0 | 1.70 | 44.0 | 31.3 |
K available | mg kg−1 | 79.73 | 74.97 | 90.3 | 116.0 |
Bulk density | g cm−3 | 1.61 | - | - | - |
Irrigation Schedule | 25-Oct. | 4-Nov. | 19-Nov. | 8-Dec. | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Amount | Events | μ | Amount | Events | μ | Amount | Events | μ | Amount | Events | μ | |
FI | 457 | 27 | 16.9 | 410 | 38 | 10.8 | 457 | 26 | 17.6 | 394 | 28 | 14.1 |
PD | - | - | - | 328 | 37 | 8.9 | - | - | - | 319 | 29 | 11.0 |
DI | - | - | - | 246 | 34 | 7.2 | - | - | - | 228 | 26 | 8.8 |
EDI | 211 | 29 | 7.3 | - | - | - | 227 | 27 | 8.4 | - | - | - |
Phenological Phase | 25-Oct. | 4-Nov. | 19-Nov. | 8-Dec. | Pearson (CGDD versus Sowing Date) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Emergence (°C) | 123.8 | 123.8 | 119.0 | 101.0 | −0.93 |
2 Leaves (°C) | 370.3 | 343.5 | 329.9 | 307.0 | −0.98 |
4 Leaves (°C) | 438.8 | 405.5 | 395.9 | 366.3 | −0.97 |
8 Leaves (°C) | 578.3 | 542.5 | 515.7 | 495.8 | −0.97 |
Panicle formation (°C) | 722.8 | 671.5 | 637.4 | 624.5 | −0.92 |
Flowering (°C) | 933.7 | 877.3 | 831.2 | 821.5 | −0.92 |
Milky grains (°C) | 1340.7 | 1293.8 | 1241.1 | 1263.0 | −0.79 |
Maturity (°C) | 1866.7 | 1919.8 | 1785.5 | 1832.3 | −0.55 |
Harvest (DAS) | 86 | 90 | 85 | 83 | - |
Mean photoperiod (min day−1) | 692.9 | 692.6 | 692.7 | 696.3 | - |
Min. photoperiod (min day−1) | 688.1 | 688.1 | 688.1 | 688.1 | - |
Max. photoperiod (min day−1) | 707.3 | 701.9 | 704.5 | 714.3 | - |
2017–2018 | ||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
I | F | PH (cm) | B (n°) | PS (cm) | SD (cm) | RD (cm) | RHL (cm) | Y (kg ha−1) | AGB (kg ha−1) | TGW (g) | HI (%) | CWP (kg m−3) |
100 | 100 | 36.4 ± 4.2 a | 7.8 ± 4.0 a | 13.8 ± 1.9 a | 0.57 ± 0.30 a | 7.8 ± 1.7 a | 20.4 ± 14.8 a,b | 430 ± 201 a | 1527 ± 439 a | 1.72 ± 0.17 a | 35 ± 4 a | 0.258 ± 0.128 b |
100 | 50 | 39.0 ± 5.4 a | 9.4 ± 4.5 a | 16.0 ± 3.0 a | 0.58 ± 0.11 a | 4.5 ± 2.4 a | 22.9 ± 9.4 a | 735 ± 339 a | 2309 ± 811 a | 1.76 ± 0.13 a | 40 ± 2 a | 0.428 ± 0.097 a,b |
100 | 25 | 37.3 ± 6.7 a | 10.4 ± 2.8 a | 15.0 ± 1.6 a | 0.66 ± 0.17 a | 7.0 ± 4.7 a | 16.8 ± 7.2 a,b | 727 ± 250 a | 1743 ± 611 a | 1.92 ± 0.20 a | 41 ± 1 a | 0.368 ± 0.128 a,b |
80 | 100 | 32.2 ± 11.1 a | 6.2 ± 3.7 a | 12.3 ± 2.4 a | 0.50 ± 0.12 a | 4.2 ± 1.1 a | 9.5 ± 4.4 a,b | 462 ± 175 a | 1353 ± 530 a | 1.88 ± 0.23 a | 35 ± 5 a | 0.315 ± 0.259 b |
80 | 50 | 44.9 ± 15.9 a | 8.9 ± 2.5 a | 16.0 ± 4.8 a | 0.59 ± 0.13 a | 8.4 ± 3.9 a | 16.6 ± 7.0 a,b | 1110 ± 620 a | 2795 ± 1675 a | 1.87 ± 0.09 a | 41 ± 5 a | 0.744 ± 0.557 a,b |
80 | 25 | 45.7 ± 9.9 a | 11.3 ± 4.3 a | 16.1 ± 5.5 a | 0.70 ± 0.17 a | 7.2 ± 4.0 a | 19.2 ± 5.4 a,b | 1356 ± 631 a | 2859 ± 1339 a | 1.94 ± 0.16 a | 39 ± 9 a | 0.670 ± 0.244 a,b |
60 | 100 | 30.6 ±10.1 a | 4.1 ± 3.0 a | 12.4 ± 3.4 a | 0.47 ± 0.11 a | 8.0 ± 4.2 a | 7.1 ± 4.9 b | 233 ± 203 a | 1370 ± 273 a | 1.89 ± 0.28 a | 31 ± 5 a | 0.259 ± 0.093 b |
60 | 50 | 38.9 ± 8.8 a | 5.6 ± 3.1 a | 16.2 ± 4.2 a | 0.65 ± 0.19 a | 6.5 ± 2.8 a | 11.5 ± 2.9 a,b | 588 ± 313 a | 1352 ± 635 a | 2.04 ± 0.45 a | 38 ± 10 a | 0.625 ± 0.257 a,b |
60 | 25 | 46.5 ± 14.7 a | 9.2 ± 4.4 a | 17.5 ± 5.0 a | 0.57 ± 0.17 a | 8.0 ± 4.3 a | 14.9 ± 3.1 a,b | 1084 ± 972 a | 2727 ± 1821 a | 2.16 ± 0.31 a | 40 ± 9 a | 1.095 ± 0.773 a |
μ | 39.0 ± 9.7 | 8.1 ± 3.6 | 15.0 ± 3.5 | 0.59 ± 0.16 | 6.8 ± 3.2 | 15.4 ± 6.6 | 747 ± 411 | 2004 ± 904 | 1.91 ± 0.23 | 38 ± 6 | 0.529 ± 0.282 | |
I | F | 2018–2019 | ||||||||||
100 | 100 | 46.5 ± 8.3 a | 8.4 ± 1.1 a | 16.8 ± 4.6 a | 0.71 ± 0.12 a | 14.5 ± 2.2 a | 23.4 ± 4.9 a | 1171 ± 362 a | 3341 ± 970 a | 1.65 ± 0.31 a | 30 ± 9 a | 0.468 ± 0.249 a |
100 | 0 | 39.8 ± 7.0 a | 7.1 ± 0.7 a,b | 14.2 ± 2.9 a | 0.59 ± 0.10 a,b | 9.3 ± 1.9 b | 15.4 ± 7.8 b | 805 ± 114 a,b | 2166 ± 748 b | 1.54 ± 0.40 a | 33 ± 10 a | 0.325 ± 0.122 a |
50 | 100 | 35.4 ± 10.8 a | 7.4 ± 1.5 a | 12.4 ± 3.3 a | 0.59 ± 0.11 a,b | 13.2 ± 3.2 a,b | 13.6 ± 3.1 b | 441 ± 212 b | 1293 ± 551 b | 1.40 ± 0.31 a | 28 ± 16 a | 0.357 ± 0.217 a |
50 | 0 | 33.7 ± 8.7 a | 5.4 ± 1.5 b | 12.1 ± 3.5 a | 0.46 ± 0.14 b | 10.7 ± 4.4 a,b | 11.0 ± 4.2 b | 519 ± 221 b | 1077 ± 321 b | 1.37 ± 0.16 a | 30 ± 12 a | 0.326 ± 0.239 a |
μ | 38.8 ± 8.7 | 7.1 ± 1.2 | 13.9 ± 3.6 | 0.59 ± 0.12 | 11.9 ± 2.9 | 15.9 ± 5.0 | 678 ± 189 | 2031 ± 603 | 1.49 ± 0.30 | 0.30 ± 0.12 | 0.37 ± 0.21 |
Irrigation | PH (cm) | B (n°) | PS (cm) | SD (cm) | RD (cm) | RHL (cm) | Y (kg ha−1) | AGB (kg ha−1) | TGW (g) | HI (%) | CWP (kg m−3) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
100 | 40.2 ± 7.6 a | 8.5 ± 3.1 a | 15.2 ± 3.3 a | 0.63 ± 0.18 a | 9.0 ± 4.4 a,b | 19.8 ± 9.7 a | 727 ± 281 a | 2321 ± 998 a | 1.71 ± 0.30 b | 36 ± 8 a | 0.373 ± 0.176 b |
80 | 40.9 ± 14.0 a | 8.8 ± 4.1 a | 14.8 ± 4.8 a | 0.60 ± 0.17 a | 6.5 ± 3.7 b | 15.0 ± 7.0 b | 1012 ± 648 a | 2436 ± 1468 a | 1.90 ± 0.17 a,b | 38 ± 7 a | 0.576 ± 0.425 a |
60 | 38.6 ± 13.2 a | 6.3 ± 4.1 b | 15.4 ± 4.8 a | 0.56 ± 0.18 a | 7.5 ± 3.9 b | 11.2 ± 4.9 b | 663 ± 724 a | 1928 ± 1421 a,b | 2.03 ± 0.37 a | 37 ± 9 a | 0.683 ± 0.592 a |
50 | 34.5 ± 9.9 a | 6.4 ± 1.8 b | 12.2 ± 3.4 a | 0.53 ± 0.14 a | 11.9 ± 4.0 a | 12.3 ± 4.0 b | 480 ± 220 b | 1321 ± 397 b | 1.38 ± 0.25 c | 29 ± 15 a | 0.340 ± 0.230 b |
Fertilization | PH (cm) | B (n°) | PS (cm) | SD (cm) | RD (cm) | RHL (cm) | Y (kg ha−1) | AGB (kg ha−1) | TGW (g) | HI (%) | CWP (kg m−3) |
100 | 36.8 ± 11.0 a | 6.9 ± 3.1 b,c | 13.6 ± 3.8 a | 0.58 ± 0.18 b | 10.0 ± 4.7 a | 15.3 ± 9.6 a,b | 483 ± 302 b | 2032 ± 1116 a | 1.71 ± 0.32 b | 32 ± 11 b | 0.343 ± 0.222 b |
50 | 40.9 ± 11.3 a | 7.9 ± 3.8 b | 16.1 ± 4.1 a | 0.60 ± 0.15 a,b | 6.3 ± 3.4 b | 17.0 ± 8.5 a | 806 ± 489 a,b | 2141 ± 1310 a | 1.89 ± 0.30 a | 40 ± 7 a | 0.599 ± 0.381 a,b |
25 | 43.2 ± 11.7 a | 10.3 ± 4.0 a | 16.2 ± 4.5 a | 0.65 ± 0.18 a | 7.4 ± 4.4 a,b | 17.0 ± 5.8 a | 1038 ± 733 a | 2426 ± 1413 a | 2.01 ± 0.26 a | 40 ± 8 a | 0.711 ± 0.560 a |
0 | 36.7 ± 8.5 a | 6.2 ± 1.4 c | 13.1 ± 3.4 a | 0.52 ± 0.14 b | 10.0 ± 3.4 a | 13.2 ± 6.7 b | 673 ± 223 a,b | 1789 ± 768 a | 1.45± 0.32 c | 32 ± 11 b | 0.326 ± 0.190 b |
25-Oct. | 19-Nov. | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
I | F | Max. CC (%) | Y (kg ha−1) | ABG (kg ha−1) | Max. CC (%) | Y (kg ha−1) | ABG (kg ha−1) |
100 | 100 | 26.6 ± 8.3 a | 1380 ± 251 a | 3522 ± 1231 a | 44.5 ± 8.9 a | 752 ± 62 a | 3205 ± 683 a |
100 | 0 | 13.4 ± 1.5 b | 875 ± 99 b | 2005 ± 146 b | 28.6 ± 9.8 b | 711 ± 44 a | 2326 ± 1022 a,b |
50 | 100 | 7.7 ± 6.6 b | 373 ± 185 c | 1280 ± 702 b | 26.4 ± 5.6 b | 508 ± 215 a | 1311 ± 224 b |
50 | 0 | 4.4 ± 5.3 b | 322 ± 116 c | 973 ± 336 b | 16.5 ± 6.8 b | 717 ± 80 a | 1283 ± 137 b |
25-October | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
I | N°1 | N°2 | N°3 | N°4 | N°5 | N°6 |
100 | 2.7 ± 1.3 a | 3.4 ± 3.6 a | 8.7 ± 5.7 a | 20.0 ± 9.5 a | 8.2 ± 3.2 a | 2.3 ± 1.4 a |
50 | 1.3 ± 0.5 b | 1.2 ± 0.5 a | 2.1 ± 1.6 b | 6.1 ± 6.6 b | 0.7 ± 0.4 b | 0.5 ± 0.5 b |
F | ||||||
100 | 2.4 ± 1.1 a | 3.1 ± 3.5 a | 7.2 ± 6.6 a | 17.2 ± 12.9 a | 5.3 ± 5.2 a | 1.7 ± 1.8 a |
0 | 1.6 ± 1.2 a | 1.5 ± 1.3 a | 3.6 ± 3.0 a | 8.9 ± 6.4 b | 3.6 ± 3.6 a | 1.1 ± 0.9 a |
19-November | ||||||
I | N°1 | N°2 | N°3 | N°4 | N°5 | N°6 |
100 | 1.2 ± 0.6 a | 14.2 ± 8.0 a | 27.3 ± 10.7 a | 36.6 ± 13.1 a | 24.9 ± 7.7 a | 9.3 ± 9.0 a |
0 | 0.6 ± 0.5 b | 8.6 ± 5.4 a | 17.6 ± 9.3 a | 21.5 ± 8.0 b | 16.0 ± 4.7 b | 2.0 ± 1.3 b |
F | ||||||
100 | 1.1 ± 0.7 a | 15.1 ± 8.2 a | 26.3 ± 12.4 a | 35.4 ± 12.5 a | 24.4 ± 8.1 a | 9.4 ± 8.8 a |
0 | 0.7 ± 0.4 a | 7.7 ± 3.5 b | 18.5 ± 8.1 a | 22.6 ± 10.7 b | 16.6 ± 5.0 b | 1.9 ± 1.6 b |
25-Oct. | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
I | F | N°1 | N°2 | N°3 | N°4 | N°5 | N°6 |
100 | 100 | 3.3 ± 0.8 a | 4.6 ± 4.8 a | 11.8 ± 6.6 a | 26.6 ± 9.5 a | 9.8 ± 2.7 a | 3.0 ± 1.5 a |
100 | 0 | 2.2 ± 1.5 a,b | 2.1 ± 1.7 a | 5.6 ± 2.7 b | 13.4 ± 1.7 b | 6.5 ± 2.9 b | 1.6 ± 0.8 a,b |
50 | 100 | 1.6 ± 0.5 b | 1.6 ± 0.4 a | 2.7 ± 1.7 b | 7.7 ± 7.6 b | 0.7 ± 0.3 c | 0.3 ± 0.1 b |
50 | 0 | 1.0 ± 0.3 b | 0.8 ± 0.3 a | 1.5 ± 1.4 b | 4.4 ± 6.1 b | 0.7 ± 0.5 c | 0.6 ± 0.7 b |
19-Nov. | |||||||
I | F | N°1 | N°2 | N°3 | N°4 | N°5 | N°6 |
100 | 100 | 1.4 ± 0.6 a | 19.4 ± 8.1 a | 32.2 ± 11.8 a | 44.5 ± 10.3 a | 30.1 ± 7.4 a | 15.9 ± 8.3 a |
100 | 0 | 0.9 ± 0.4 a,b | 8.9 ± 3.3 b | 22.3 ± 7.9 a,b | 28.6 ± 11.3 b | 19.8 ± 3.5 b | 2.9 ± 1.9 b |
50 | 100 | 0.8 ± 0.6 a,b | 10.8 ± 6.5 a,b | 20.4 ± 11.2 a,b | 26.4 ± 6.5 b | 18.7 ± 3.6 b | 2.7 ± 1.1 b |
50 | 0 | 0.5 ± 0.3 b | 6.5 ± 3.6 b | 14.8 ± 7.4 b | 16.5 ± 6.7 b | 13.4 ± 4.4 b | 1.2 ± 0.9 b |
© 2019 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Alvar-Beltrán, J.; Dao, A.; Dalla Marta, A.; Saturnin, C.; Casini, P.; Sanou, J.; Orlandini, S. Effect of Drought, Nitrogen Fertilization, Temperature and Photoperiodicity on Quinoa Plant Growth and Development in the Sahel. Agronomy 2019, 9, 607. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy9100607
Alvar-Beltrán J, Dao A, Dalla Marta A, Saturnin C, Casini P, Sanou J, Orlandini S. Effect of Drought, Nitrogen Fertilization, Temperature and Photoperiodicity on Quinoa Plant Growth and Development in the Sahel. Agronomy. 2019; 9(10):607. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy9100607
Chicago/Turabian StyleAlvar-Beltrán, Jorge, Abdalla Dao, Anna Dalla Marta, Coulibaly Saturnin, Paolo Casini, Jacob Sanou, and Simone Orlandini. 2019. "Effect of Drought, Nitrogen Fertilization, Temperature and Photoperiodicity on Quinoa Plant Growth and Development in the Sahel" Agronomy 9, no. 10: 607. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy9100607