Systematic Review on the Impact of Various Types of Universal Basic Income on Mental Health in Low- and Middle-Income Countries
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
3. Results
3.1. General Mental Health and Psychological Well-Being
3.2. Depression
3.3. Stress
3.4. Optimism and Hope
3.5. Locus of Control
3.6. Other Parameters
4. Discussion
4.1. Overall Effect of Various UBI Programs on Different Aspects of Mental Health
4.2. The Effect of UBI Characteristics on Mental Health Outcomes
4.3. Other Lines of Inquiry
4.4. Limitations and Ideas for Further Research
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Authors | Intervention | Country | Periodic Cash Transfers | Individuality of Intervention | Universality of Intervention | Unconditionality of Intervention | Study Design | Sample | Control Group | Measurement of Mental Health | Results |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
American Research Institute [43] | Multicategory Targeted Grants | Zambia | ✓ | X | X | ✓ | Randomized controlled trial (RCT) | N = 844; adolescents (aged 15–19) | N = 922; adolescents (aged 15–19) | CES-D-10 a | Intervention did not significantly reduce depression levels after 24 months. |
American Research Institute [44] | Multicategory Targeted Grants | Zambia | ✓ | X | X | ✓ | RCT | N = 1040; adolescents (aged 16–23) | N = 1177; adolescents (aged 16–23) | CES-D-10 | Intervention did not significantly reduce depression levels after 36 months. |
Natali et al. [45] | Child Grants Program | Zambia | ✓ | X | X | ✓ | RCT | N = 1084; women (M = 29 years) | N = 1119; women (M = 29 years) | Adapted and supplemented WHOQOL questionnaire | Significantly increased subjective well-being in the treatment group after 36 and 48 months. |
Baird et al. [46] | Randomized Cash Transfer | Malawi | ✓ | ✓ | X | ✓ (as a condition of the study) | RCT | N = 1225; unmarried girls, grouped by schooling (aged 13–22) | N = 2574; unmarried girls, grouped by schooling (aged 13–22) | GHQ-12 b, MHI-5 c | Significant reduction in psychological distress and likelihood of mental disorders in school-going girls after 12 months but not after 24 months. There were no significant differences in those who had dropped out of school during the intervention. |
Kilburn et al. [47] | Malawi’s social cash transfer program | Malawi | ✓ | X | X | ✓ | RCT | N = 1678 households | N = 1852 households | Measuring subjective well-being via Quality of Life scale (questions drawn from SWLS and WHOQOL), future expectations questions, and relative well-being question | Strong positive impacts of the income shock on caregivers’ quality of life and their perception of future well-being; no impact on their perception of relative well-being. |
Salinas-Rodriguez et al. [48] | Program 70 y más (non-contributory pension program) | Mexico | ✓ | ✓ | X | ✓ | Qualitative and quantitative study | N = 1353; elderly from areas with 2500 or fewer residents (aged 70–74) | First control group for direct comparison: N = 888; elderly from areas with more than 2500 residents (aged 70–74); Second control group for expectation effect: N = 2227; elderly (aged 65–69) | GDS d, questions regarding individuals’ ability to participate in important non-economic and economic household decisions, semi-structured interview with questions such as “Do your children tell you how to spend your money?” and “How do you feel now that you are receiving the Program?” | Significant reduction in depressive symptoms and increase in empowerment in the intervention condition. |
Kilburn et al. [49] | Cash transfer program for orphans and vulnerable children | Kenya | ✓ | X | X | ✓ | RCT | N = 1408; adolescents (aged 15–24) | N = 598; adolescents (aged 15–24) | CES-D-10, State Hope Scale | After 4 years of receiving cash transfers, young men had significantly fewer depressive symptoms and higher levels of hope compared to the previous year and compared to the control group. |
Handa et al. [50] | Cash transfer program for orphans and vulnerable children | Kenya | ✓ | X | X | ✓ | RCT | N = 1266 households | N = 545 households | Parents’ subjective wellbeing: WHOQOL domains “positive feeling” and “overall life and health” and three subjective future well-being questions; Children’s subjective wellbeing: 10 selected questions from CES-D-20 and Children’s Hope Scale | A positive income shock improves the quality of life and future expectations of parents, which in turn alleviate depression and increase hope in children. |
Haushofer & Shapiro [51] | GiveDirectly UBI program | Kenya | Both: periodic and lump-sum payments | ✓ | X | ✓ | RCT | N = 471 households | N = 505 households (‘spillover’ e control); N = 852 households (pure control) | CES-D-20 f, PSS g, questions on happiness and life satisfaction (WVS h), cortisol measurement, questions on worries, LOT-R i, LCS j | Significant reduction in depression and increase in happiness, life satisfaction, and psychological well-being index in the intervention group. |
Haushofer & Shapiro [52] | GiveDirectly UBI program | Kenya | Both: periodic and lump-sum payments | ✓ | X | ✓ | RCT | N = 471 households | N = 469 households (‘spillover’ control); N = 432 households (pure control) | CES-D-20, PSS, questions on happiness and life satisfaction (WVS), cortisol measurement, questions on worries, LOT-R, LCS, Women’s Empowerment Index (measurement tool not specified) | Significant reduction in depression, worry, and stress and increase in happiness, life satisfaction, optimism, and psychological well-being index in the intervention group. |
Haushofer & Shapiro [53] | GiveDirectly UBI program | Kenya | Both: periodic and lump-sum payments | ✓ | X | ✓ | RCT | N = 471 households | N = 469 households (‘spillover’ control); N = 432 households (pure control) | CES-D-20, PSS, questions on happiness and life satisfaction (WVS), cortisol measurement, questions on worries, LOT-R, LCS | Significant reduction in depression and stress and increase in happiness, life satisfaction, and psychological well-being index in the intervention group within 15 to 19 months after the start of the intervention. |
Banerjee et al. [54] | GiveDirectly UBI program | Kenya | Both: periodic and lump-sum payments | ✓ | X | ✓ | RCT | N ≈ 22,600; 195 villages, aged over 18 | N ≈ 11,000; 100 villages, aged over 18 | CES-D-20, Locus of Control Scale (measurement tool not specified) | Significant reduction in depression among household heads in short-term and long-term intervention groups but not in the one-time payment group. No significant differences in the locus of the control. |
Daidone et al. [55] | Livelihood empowerment against poverty program | Ghana | ✓ | X | X | ✓ | Qualitative and quantitative study | N = 646 households | N = 843 households (629 first comparison group, 214 additional to generate more statistical power) | Happiness scale (measurement tool not specified) | The likelihood of happiness increased by 16 percentage points in the intervention group compared to the control group (mainly due to smaller households and female-headed households). An important program effect on self-esteem, hope, and overall happiness reported in the qualitative part. |
Authors | Validity | Methodological Adequacy | Reporting of Results | Applicability | Research Quality * | Methodological Issues |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
American Research Institute [43] a | 3/3 | 2/3 | 2/3 | 2/2 | 9/11 | Self-reporting used (bias). Due to the short duration of the program (24 months), the results may not have shown a measurable impact. Geographical remoteness may have contributed to poorer access to health and education services, potentially limiting the program’s effectiveness. The effects could be greater compared to richer areas due to the presence of very high levels of poverty. Expectations about the future were measured using only three self-invented questions, which are not part of a recognized questionnaire, making the results non-comparable with other studies. |
American Research Institute [44] a | 3/3 | 2/3 | 2/3 | 2/2 | 9/11 | The same shortcomings as in AIR (2014), as it is the same study, only reporting the effects of the program after 32 months. |
Natali et al. [45] a | 3/3 | 2/3 | 2/3 | 1/2 | 8/11 | Self-reporting used (bias). Given the diverse operationalization of happiness and subjective well-being, it would make sense for the study to include more standardized measures that assess these constructs. Missing baseline data at the start of the program prevent commenting on changes and the program’s impact on mental health indicators (measurements were only performed during the last waves, at 36 and 48 months). Lack of triangulation of the measured construct of happiness. |
Baird et al. [46] a | 3/3 | 2/3 | 3/3 | 1/2 | 9/11 | Self-reporting used (bias). Missing baseline data at the start of the program prevent commenting on changes and the program’s impact on mental health indicators (two rounds of questionnaire implementation after the program started, one used in both rounds, one only once). Inconsistent reporting and interpretation of results from tables to text. Non-comparability of groups due to different numbers of participants in each. Insufficient citation of sources for the mental health questionnaires used. |
Kilburn et al. [47] a | 3/3 | 2/3 | 2/3 | 1/2 | 8/11 | Self-reporting used (bias). Short time frame of the study. Changes in an individual’s criteria for a satisfying life are not necessarily related to the program. |
Salinas-Rodriguez et al. [48] | 2/3 | 2/3 | 2/3 | 2/2 | 8/11 | Self-reporting used (bias). Missing baseline data at the start of the program prevent commenting on changes and the program’s impact on mental health indicators (the qualitative part of the study did not include pre-program measurements). Results are not generalizable—data were only obtained for older adults aged 70 to 74 living in rural areas, and we do not know the program’s effects on those older than 74 and those living in cities. Only short-term effects were studied (after 12 months), not long-term. Insufficient description of the qualitative part of the study—it is only stated that semi-structured interviews were thematically divided into four sections, but not all the questions used are listed. |
2/2 b | 3/4 b | 3/3 b | 0/1 b | 8/10 b | ||
Kilburn et al. [49] a | 3/3 | 2/3 | 2/3 | 1/2 | 8/11 | Self-reporting used (bias). Missing baseline data on adolescents/participants. Inconsistent reporting and interpretation of results from tables to text and inclusion criteria. Non-comparability of groups, as the experimental group included more orphans than the control group. Results are not generalizable, as the program is aimed at households with orphans. |
Handa et al. [50] a | 3/3 | 2/3 | 2/3 | 1/2 | 8/11 | Self-reporting used (bias). Non-comparability of groups, as the experimental group included more households than the control group. Factors other than parental SWB may contribute to changes in SWB in young people. |
Haushofer and Shapiro [51] a | 1/3 | 1/3 | 2/3 | 0/2 | 4/11 | Self-reporting used (bias). Participants were not completely blinded to group allocation. For measuring worries, they designed their own questionnaire, which lacked transparency. The sample was selected based on thatch roof data (the main and only criterion for determining low socioeconomic status). The final survey was conducted before some households received all transfers. The control group was included in the study only at the end of the program. |
Haushofer and Shapiro [52] a | 3/3 | 0/3 | 3/3 | 2/2 | 8/11 | Self-reporting used (bias). The sample was selected based on thatch roof data (the main and only criterion for determining low socioeconomic status). The effects of cash transfers on psychological well-being may be biased due to the spillover effect. The problem with analyzing the spillover effect is the later application of the criterion (one year later) for the control group. As a result, certain households were excluded from the final analysis at the end of the study. For measuring worries, they designed their own questionnaire, which lacked transparency. The control group was included in the study only at the end of the program. |
Haushofer and Shapiro [53] a | 2/3 | 0/3 | 2/3 | 1/2 | 5/11 | Self-reporting used (bias). The sample was selected based on thatch roof data (the main and only criterion for determining low socio-economic status). Participants were not completely blinded to group allocation. For measuring worries, they designed their own questionnaire, which lacked transparency. The method for measuring locus of control and calculating the psychological well-being and Women’s Empowerment Index is also unknown, limiting the validity of the results. The control group was included in the study only at the end of the program. The final survey was conducted before the program ended. |
Banerjee et al. [54] a | 3/3 | 2/3 | 2/3 | 1/2 | 8/11 | Self-reporting used (bias). Analysis of intervention during the COVID-19 pandemic, which may limit generalizability. Inaccurate or insufficient citation of the measurement instruments used limits the validity of the results. |
Daidone et al. [55] | 3/3 | 2/3 | 2/3 | 1/2 | 8/11 | Self-reporting used (bias). Given the diverse operationalization of happiness, it would make sense for the study to include a standardized measure to assess this construct. Regional effects were not controlled—control households lived in different regions compared to program participants. Irregular payments and low values of the transfers could affect results. |
1/2 b | 3/4 b | 2/3 b | 1/1 b | 7/10 b |
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Gomboc, S.; Zagoranski, M.; Kos, A.; Bolta, T.; Kitanovska, T.; Rupena, G.; Slabanja, L.; Soklič, J.; Ružič Povirk, L.; Šenica, L.; et al. Systematic Review on the Impact of Various Types of Universal Basic Income on Mental Health in Low- and Middle-Income Countries. Behav. Sci. 2024, 14, 726. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs14080726
Gomboc S, Zagoranski M, Kos A, Bolta T, Kitanovska T, Rupena G, Slabanja L, Soklič J, Ružič Povirk L, Šenica L, et al. Systematic Review on the Impact of Various Types of Universal Basic Income on Mental Health in Low- and Middle-Income Countries. Behavioral Sciences. 2024; 14(8):726. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs14080726
Chicago/Turabian StyleGomboc, Simona, Matija Zagoranski, Anaja Kos, Tinkara Bolta, Teodora Kitanovska, Gaja Rupena, Lara Slabanja, Julija Soklič, Lara Ružič Povirk, Lina Šenica, and et al. 2024. "Systematic Review on the Impact of Various Types of Universal Basic Income on Mental Health in Low- and Middle-Income Countries" Behavioral Sciences 14, no. 8: 726. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs14080726