Effects of Establishment on Growth, Yield, and Silage Qualities of Amaranth in Typhoon-Prone Southern Kyushu, Japan
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Area
2.2. Experimental Design and Forage Preparation
2.3. Silage Preparation
2.4. Forage Quality Analysis for Plant Samples and Silage
2.5. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Establishment Rate
3.2. Changes in Shoot Density
3.3. Changes in Plant Height
3.4. DM Yields and CGR in 2021–2023
3.5. Herbage Quality of In Vitro Digestibility of DM and CP Content in 2022
3.6. Silage Quality in 2021–2023
4. Discussion
4.1. Effect of Seasons and Establishment Methods on Establishment and Growth of Amaranth
4.2. Effect of Seasons and Establishment Methods on Amaranth Yield, Herbage Quality, and Silage Fermentation Quality
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Year | Date of Establishment | Method of Establishment | Abbreviation of Establishment | Plant Spacing | Sowing Date | Harvest Stage of Amaranth |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
2021 | 14 April | Direct seeding in row | April-Row | 40 cm † | 14 April | Late flowering |
Direct seeding in spot ⁑ | April-Spot | 40 cm × 40 cm | 14 April | |||
11 May | Direct seeding in row | May-Row | 40 cm † | 11 May | ||
Direct seeding in spot | May-Spot | 40 cm × 40 cm | 11 May | |||
29 June | Transplants | June-TransP | 40 cm × 40 cm | 11 May | ||
Direct seeding in spot | June-Spot | 40 cm × 40 cm | 29 June | |||
Soil seed balls | June-SoilB | 40 cm × 40 cm | 26 June | |||
21 July | Direct seeding in spot | July-Spot | 40 cm × 40 cm | 21 July | ||
Soil seed balls | July-SoilB | 40 cm × 40 cm | 20 July | |||
30 August | Soil seed balls | August-SoilB | 40 cm × 40 cm | 29 August | ||
2022 | 9 April | Transplants | April-TransP | 30 cm × 30 cm | 14 March | Full maturity |
Soil seed balls | April-SoilB | 30 cm × 30 cm | 8 April | |||
22 May | Transplants | May-TransP | 30 cm × 30 cm | 25 April | ||
23 May | Soil seed balls | May-SoilB | 30 cm × 30 cm | 22 May | ||
11 August | Transplants | August-TransP | 30 cm × 30 cm | 18 July | ||
Soil seed balls | August-SoilB | 30 cm × 30 cm | 10 August | |||
2023 | 11 April | Transplants | April-TransP | 30 cm × 30 cm | 15 March | Full maturity |
Soil seed balls | April-SoilB | 30 cm × 30 cm | 9 April | |||
23 May | Transplants | May-TransP | 30 cm × 30 cm | 20 April | ||
Soil seed balls | May-SoilB | 30 cm × 30 cm | 22 May | |||
19 August | Transplants | August-TransP | 30 cm × 30 cm | 17 July | ||
Soil seed balls | August-SoilB | 30 cm × 30 cm | 18 August |
(A) 2021 | ||||||||||
Establishment Method | Harvest Date | Maturity at Harvest | Plant Height (cm) | Plant Density (m−2) | Fresh Yield (g m−2) | Dry Matter Yield (g m−2) | Lodging by Typhoon (%) | |||
Leaves | Stems | Inflo-Rescences | Whole Plants | |||||||
June-TransP | 13 September | Early seed mature | 131.6 | 1.8 | 942.9 | 36.0 | 63.9 | 25.1 | 125.0 | 58.3 |
June-Spot | Full-bloom | 66.0 | 0.7 | 1.7 | − | − | − | 0.4 | 53.3 | |
June-SoilB | Full-bloom | 91.8 | 0.7 | 204.4 | 17.9 | 34.7 | 7.7 | 60.3 | 50.0 | |
July-Spot | 18 October | Full-bloom | 136.8 | 0.3 | 439.9 | 10.8 | 14.0 | 13.1 | 38.0 | 14.3 |
July-SoilB | 2 December | Full-mature | 135.6 | 4.1 | 7413.8 | 272.4 | 356.2 | 637.3 | 1265.9 | 4.3 |
August-SoilB | Early seed mature | 112.0 | 2.5 | 3028.6 | 151.3 | 144.5 | 118.0 | 413.7 | 0 | |
(B) 2022 | ||||||||||
Establishment method | Harvest Date | Maturity at Harvest | Plant Height (cm) | Plant Density (m−2) | Fresh Yield (g m−2) | Dry Matter Yield (g m−2) | Lodging by Typhoon (%) | |||
Leaves | Stems | Inflore-Scences | Whole Plants | |||||||
April-TransP | 26 July | Full-mature | 151.8 ± 3.8 †d | 11.1 ± 0.0 a | 7707.4 ± 1636.4 ab | 213.3 ± 52.5 bc | 356.7 ± 61.5 c | 1042.7 ± 222.2 a | 1612.6 ± 335.5 a | 0 |
April-SoilB | Full-mature | 177.7 ± 0.7 c | 11.1 ± 0.0 a | 11,023.7 ± 2323.7 a | 355.3 ± 67.8 a | 624.6 ± 89.3 b | 828.5 ± 223.5 a | 2043.8 ± 270.2 a | 0 | |
May-TransP | 25 August | Full-mature | 207.7 ± 6.7 b | 11.1 ± 0.0 a | 8180.7 ± 243.9 ab | 130.7 ± 4.9 cd | 711.5 ± 51.6 ab | 618.5 ± 41.7 a | 1460.7 ± 16.9 a | 0 |
May-SoilB | Full-mature | 231.5 ± 9.7 a | 11.1 ± 0.0 a | 11,464.8 ± 2232.5 a | 306.3 ± 37.0 ab | 903.4 ± 121.9 a | 645.4 ± 119.9 a | 1685.3 ± 286.8 a | 0 | |
August-TransP | 4 November | Full-bloom | 209.3 ± 11.3 b | 5.8 ± 1.1 b | 4022.9 ± 717.2 bc | 85.6 ± 13.9 d | 278.2 ± 8.2 c | 103.7 ± 22.5 b | 467.5 ± 40.8 b | 46.1 |
August-SoilB | Full-bloom | 144.0 ± 5.2 d | 5.3 ± 0.4 b | 2313.0 ± 93.2 c | 71.8 ± 6.1 d | 156.5 ± 10.1 c | 77.7 ± 15.0 b | 306.0 ± 25.4 b | 47.3 | |
(C) 2023 | ||||||||||
Establishment Method | HarvestDate | Maturity at Harvest | Plant Height (cm) | Plant Density (m−2) | Fresh Yield (g m−2) | Dry Matter Yield (g m−2) | Lodging by Typhoon (%) | |||
Leaves | Stems | Inflore-Scences | Whole Plants | |||||||
April-TransP | 10 July | Full-mature | 177.2 ± 8.3 b | 11.1 ± 0.0 ns | 8965.0 ± 303.3 c | 259.2 ± 8.6 c | 383.1 ± 29.8 c | 716.1 ± 22.9 a | 1358.4 ± 60.0 c | 0 |
April-SoilB | 22 July | Full-mature | 190.7 ± 7.4 b | 11.1 ± 0.0 | 10,973.9 ± 601.6 abc | 355.2 ± 21.0 b | 657.6 ± 56.7 b | 881.8 ± 91.0 a | 1894.7 ± 164.7 a | 0 |
May-TransP | 12 August | Full-mature | 205.7 ± 7.1 ab | 10.7 ± 0.3 | 9059.6 ± 450.4 bc | 279.4 ± 19.8 c | 548.4 ± 31.8 b | 477.7 ± 22.3 b | 1305.6 ± 46.8 c | 4.9 |
May-SoilB | 26 August | Full-mature | 223.8 ± 8.4 a | 10.6 ± 0.2 | 12,090.7 ± 92.9 a | 376.7 ± 23.3 b | 904.8 ± 14.8 a | 231.1 ± 14.7 c | 1512.6 ± 31.0 bc | 3.5 |
August-TransP | 11 November | Full-mature | 220.3 ± 9.1 a | 10.8 ± 0.2 | 10,696.7 ± 945.2 abc | 377.1 ± 11.0 b | 616.7 ± 50.1 b | 761.7 ± 94.5 a | 1755.6 ± 151.6 ab | 0 |
August-SoilB | 11 November | Full-mature | 217.2 ± 3.5 a | 10.9 ± 0.1 | 11,039.4 ± 839.5 ab | 465.3 ± 11.6 a | 631.6 ± 55.3 b | 322.7 ± 56.7 bc | 1419.7 ± 122.1 bc | 0 |
Treatment for Establishment | IVDMD (%) | CP (% DM) | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Leaves | Stems | Inflore-Scences | Whole Plants | Leaves | Stems | Inflore-Scences | Whole Plants | |
April-TransP | 63.95 ± 0.83 †e | 48.74 ± 0.43 b | 67.70 ± 0.66 bc | 62.97 ± 0.57 a | 13.81 ± 0.99 b | 3.24 ± 0.70 b | 15.41 ± 0.47 bc | 12.47 ± 0.63 bc |
April-SoilB | 70.82 ± 0.62 bc | 48.47 ± 2.42 b | 71.47 ± 1.37 ab | 63.08 ± 1.70 a | 15.63 ± 1.29 b | 4.06 ± 1.33 b | 13.38 ± 1.00 c | 10.53 ± 1.26 cd |
May-TransP | 66.52 ± 0.79 de | 43.37 ± 1.00 c | 60.99 ± 1.84 cd | 53.27 ± 0.20 b | 9.10 ± 1.02 c | 2.64 ± 0.58 b | 13.82 ± 1.85 c | 7.59 ± 1.23 d |
May-SoilB | 68.33 ± 0.89 cd | 37.96 ± 1.18 d | 59.02 ± 1.14 d | 49.64 ± 1.48 b | 15.94 ± 2.25 b | 4.66 ± 1.46 b | 14.15 ± 1.71 c | 9.72 ± 1.80 cd |
August-TransP | 73.69 ± 1.99 b | 54.99 ± 1.41 a | 78.12 ± 3.64 a | 63.10 ± 1.36 a | 22.99 ± 1.36 a | 11.44 ± 0.87 a | 19.15 ± 1.78 ab | 15.15 ± 1.33 ab |
August-SoilB | 77.97 ± 0.54 a | 56.30 ± 0.64 a | 75.28 ± 3.22 a | 66.15 ± 1.21 a | 24.88 ± 0.71 a | 13.41 ± 0.98 a | 22.30 ± 0.41 a | 18.36 ± 0.80 a |
Established Month and Year | July 2021 | August 2022 | August 2023 | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Method of Establishment | Soil Seed Balls | Soil Seed Balls | Transplants | Soil Seed Balls | Transplants |
n | 2 | 3 | 3 | 3 | 3 |
Wilted forages | |||||
Percentage of dry matter (DM) | 17.07 ± 0.00 b† | 25.78 ± 1.75 a | 21.95 ± 4.54 ab | 19.37 ± 0.79 ab | 24.59 ± 1.19 a |
Silage quality attribute | |||||
Percentage of dry matter (DM) | 19.29 ± 0.22 c | 23.30 ± 0.44 a | 22.81 ± 0.47 ab | 20.01 ± 0.79 bc | 24.30 ± 1.56 a |
pH | 6.39 ± 0.22 a | 5.58 ± 0.33 b | 5.53 ± 0.05 b | 4.52 ± 0.04 c | 4.99 ± 0.23 bc |
Lactic acid (g kg−1 DM) | 9.91 ± 4.09 a | 3.10 ± 0.39 b | 3.09 ± 0.49 b | 1.25 ± 0.16 b | 2.00 ± 0.70 b |
Acetic acid (g kg−1 DM) | 6.56 ± 0.01 c | 23.69 ± 1.99 a | 16.59 ± 0.49 b | 10.43 ± 0.81 c | 8.35 ± 1.53 c |
Propionic acid (g kg−1 DM) | 2.49 ± 0.73 ns | 1.56 ± 0.33 | 3.09 ± 0.11 | 2.04 ± 0.60 | 3.53 ± 0.85 |
Butyric acid (g kg−1 DM) | 0.00 ± 0.00 ns | 0.13 ± 0.06 | 0.23 ± 0.13 | 0.00 ± 0.00 | 0.00 ± 0.00 |
Valeric acid (g kg−1 DM) | 0.64 ± 0.14 b | 0.24 ± 0.12 b | 0.49 ± 0.09 b | 5.66 ± 0.31 a | 5.07 ± 0.23 a |
Volatile basic nitrogen (VBN, g kg−1 DM) | 0.06 ± 0.06 c | 0.36 ± 0.02 a | 0.34 ± 0.01 a | 0.17 ± 0.01 b | 0.11 ± 0.01 bc |
Total nitrogen (TN, g kg−1 DM) | 23.32 ± 1.97 ns | 28.71 ± 1.94 | 26.43 ± 0.88 | 29.71 ± 3.00 | 29.71 ± 2.21 |
VBN/TN (%) | 0.23 ± 0.23 c | 1.27 ± 0.06 a | 1.28 ± 0.02 a | 0.58 ± 0.04 b | 0.47 ± 0.01 b |
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Zhong, Z.; Niimi, M.; Tobisa, M.; Idota, S.; Ishii, Y. Effects of Establishment on Growth, Yield, and Silage Qualities of Amaranth in Typhoon-Prone Southern Kyushu, Japan. Agriculture 2024, 14, 1364. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture14081364
Zhong Z, Niimi M, Tobisa M, Idota S, Ishii Y. Effects of Establishment on Growth, Yield, and Silage Qualities of Amaranth in Typhoon-Prone Southern Kyushu, Japan. Agriculture. 2024; 14(8):1364. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture14081364
Chicago/Turabian StyleZhong, Zixuan, Mitsuhiro Niimi, Manabu Tobisa, Sachiko Idota, and Yasuyuki Ishii. 2024. "Effects of Establishment on Growth, Yield, and Silage Qualities of Amaranth in Typhoon-Prone Southern Kyushu, Japan" Agriculture 14, no. 8: 1364. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture14081364