Impacts of Whole-Grain Soft Red, Whole-Grain Soft White, and Refined Soft White Wheat Flour Crackers on Gastrointestinal Inflammation and the Gut Microbiota of Adult Humans
Abstract
:Simple Summary
Abstract
1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Design
2.2. Sample
2.3. Measurement
2.3.1. Participant Characteristics
2.3.2. Microbiota Measurement
2.3.3. Intestinal Inflammation Measurement
2.4. Data Collection
2.5. Data Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Participant Characteristics
3.2. Gut Microbiota Diversity
3.3. Gut Microbiota Taxa
3.4. Gastrointestinal Inflammation
3.4.1. Inflammatory Protein Markers
3.4.2. Butyrate Production Capacity
4. Discussion
4.1. Gut Microbiota Diversity
4.2. Gut Microbiota Taxa
4.3. Gastrointestinal Inflammation
4.3.1. Inflammatory Protein Markers
4.3.2. Butyrate Production Capacity
4.4. Strengths, Limitations, and Other Considerations
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
References
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Calories (kcal) | Fat (g) | Saturated Fat | MUFAs a | PUFAs b | Trans Fat | Protein (g) | Total Sugars (g) | Other Carbohydrates (g) | Total Dietary Fiber (g) | Insoluble Fiber (g) | Soluble Fiber (g) | Sodium (mg) | Ash (g) | Moisture (g) | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Refined soft white wheat | 313 | 6.44 | 1.68 | 1.26 | 3.16 | 0.058 | 7.15 | 2.44 | 54.12 | 3.99 | 1.54 | 2.45 | 439 | 1.512 | 4.35 |
Whole-grain soft white wheat | 298 | 7.16 | 1.82 | 1.41 | 3.54 | 0.071 | 9.1 | 2.816 | 46.65 | 10.72 | 7.54 | 3.18 | 452 | 2.112 | 1.44 |
Whole-grain soft red wheat | 306 | 8.00 | 2.08 | 1.59 | 3.92 | 0.082 | 9.35 | 2.392 | 46.61 | 10.72 | 7.35 | 3.37 | 454 | 2.152 | 0.78 |
Characteristic | Mean | SD |
---|---|---|
BMI | 26.0 | 5.7 |
Age 1 (years) | 35.2 | 9.9 |
Compliance 2 (% consumed) | ||
Week A 3 | 89.4 | 17.6 |
Week B 1 | 84.3 | 19.8 |
Week C 1 | 82.4 | 16.7 |
Week D 3 | 80.8 | 26.7 |
n (N = 28) | % | |
Female | 17 | 60.7 |
Ever smoked | 7 | 25.0 |
Antibiotics in the past year | 11 | 39.3 |
Homeowner | 10 | 35.7 |
Car owner 3 | 20 | 76.9 |
Stocks/bonds owner 3 | 10 | 38.5 |
BMI Category | ||
Underweight | 1 | 3.6 |
Normal | 12 | 42.9 |
Overweight | 9 | 32.1 |
Obese | 6 | 21.4 |
Race | ||
White—non-Hispanic | 17 | 60.7 |
White—Hispanic | 2 | 7.14 |
Black/African American | 2 | 7.14 |
Other | 7 | 25.0 |
Education | ||
College graduate or more | 24 | 85.7 |
Some college | 4 | 14.3 |
Income 1 | ||
Under USD 25,000 | 14 | 51.9 |
USD 25,000–USD 49,000 | 1 | 3.7 |
USD 50,000–USD 75,000 | 8 | 29.6 |
Over USD 75,000 | 4 | 14.8 |
Timepoint | Lipocalin | Calprotectin |
---|---|---|
Week | Median (Range) | Median (Range) |
A 1 | 21.1 (0.7–192.4) | 46.8 (5.0–1915.1) |
B 2 | 14.8 (0.5–64.8) | 46.6 (3.1–1754.3) |
C 3 | 21.7 (2.7–146.0) | 33.2 (5.1–1888.3) |
D 4 | 22.6 (1.4–71.8) | 62.5 (8.0–1895.0) |
Week A | Week B | Week C | Week D | Friedman X2 | p-Value | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Buk 1 | 25.0 (0–114.0) | 25.5 (0–210.0) | 27.0 (1.0–341.0) | 26.0 (0–113.0) | 1.91 | 0.59 |
ButFPrausn 2 | 24,074 (2105–141,161) | 32,115 (22–135,793) | 28,970 (154–78,285) | 40,029 (6150–219,352) | 1.98 | 0.58 |
ButRosEub 2 | 510,396 (59,266–3,239,517) | 696,317 (1905–4,018,413) | 470,724 (373–4,185,708) | 432,130 (4405–4,174,740) | 4.56 | 0.21 |
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Kinney, G.A.; Haddad, E.N.; Gopalakrishnan, N.; Sugino, K.Y.; Garrow, L.S.; Ng, P.K.W.; Comstock, S.S. Impacts of Whole-Grain Soft Red, Whole-Grain Soft White, and Refined Soft White Wheat Flour Crackers on Gastrointestinal Inflammation and the Gut Microbiota of Adult Humans. Biology 2024, 13, 677. https://doi.org/10.3390/biology13090677
Kinney GA, Haddad EN, Gopalakrishnan N, Sugino KY, Garrow LS, Ng PKW, Comstock SS. Impacts of Whole-Grain Soft Red, Whole-Grain Soft White, and Refined Soft White Wheat Flour Crackers on Gastrointestinal Inflammation and the Gut Microbiota of Adult Humans. Biology. 2024; 13(9):677. https://doi.org/10.3390/biology13090677
Chicago/Turabian StyleKinney, Gigi A., Eliot N. Haddad, Neha Gopalakrishnan, Kameron Y. Sugino, Linda S. Garrow, Perry K. W. Ng, and Sarah S. Comstock. 2024. "Impacts of Whole-Grain Soft Red, Whole-Grain Soft White, and Refined Soft White Wheat Flour Crackers on Gastrointestinal Inflammation and the Gut Microbiota of Adult Humans" Biology 13, no. 9: 677. https://doi.org/10.3390/biology13090677