Influence of Drought and Heat Stress on Mineral Content, Antioxidant Activity and Bioactive Compound Accumulation in Four African Amaranthus Species
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Results
2.1. Effect of Drought and Heat Stress on Mineral Content
2.2. Effect of Drought and Heat Stress on Total Antioxidant Capacity (TAC), Phenolic (TPC) and Flavonoid (TFC) Content Accumulation
2.3. Influence of Drought and Heat Stress on Organic Acids and Flavonoids Compound Accumulation
3. Discussion
4. Materials and Methods
4.1. Chemicals and Reference Standards
4.2. Plant Material and Growth Conditions
4.3. Determination of Mineral Content
4.4. Determination of Total Phenolic Content, Total Flavonoid Content and Antioxidant Activity
4.4.1. Sample Preparation
4.4.2. Extraction of Flavonoids and Phenolic Compounds
4.4.3. Antioxidant Activity
4.5. Determination of Total Phenolic Content
4.6. Determination of Total Flavonoid Content
4.7. Sample Analysis by HPLC and LC-MS
4.8. Statistical Analysis
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Compound | A. caudatus | A. hypochondriacus | A. cruentus | A. spinosus |
---|---|---|---|---|
Catechin | 28.80 ± 0.04 b | 28.81 ± 0.03 bc | 28.81 ± 0.02 c | 28.80 ± 0.08 a |
P-hydrobenzoic acid | 33.38 ± 7.01 a | ND | ND | ND |
Caffeic acid | 109.91 ± 8.16 b | 1318.80 ± 12.53 a | ND | ND |
Vanillic acid | 139.73 ± 24.32 a | 14.16 ± 2.50 b | ND | ND |
Rutin | 550.61 ± 26.73 a | 449.85 ± 24.30 b | 363.29 ± 11.78 c | 397.39 ± 78.42 b |
P-coumaric acid | 315.97 ± 40.28 a | 57.75 ± 4.95 b | ND | ND |
Isoquercetin | 223.10 ± 17.15 a | 106.20 ± 8.58 b | ND | ND |
Quercetin | 437.90 ± 26.31 a | 412.30 ± 51.19 a | 204.76 ± 33.67 b | 88.11 ± 2.54 c |
Kampferol-3-O-rutinoside | 22.23 ± 2.66 d | 47.30 ± 7.32 b | 37.24 ± 6.15 c | 65.08 ± 10.34 a |
Sinapic acid | 26.51 ± 5.90 a | ND | ND | ND |
Ferulic acid | 341.14 ± 30.30 a | 154.20 ± 25.44 b | 58.95 ± 9.39 c | 35.14 ± 4.12 d |
Gallic acid | ND | ND | ND | ND |
Coumarin | ND | ND | ND | ND |
Ellagic acid | ND | ND | ND | ND |
Compound | A. caudatus | A. hypochondriacus | A. cruentus | A. spinosus | ||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Control WW | 30° WW | 35° WW | 40° WW | Control WW | 30° WW | 35° WW | 40° WW | Control WW | 30° WW | 35° WW | 40° WW | Control WW | 30° WW | 35° WW | 40° WW | |
Catechin | 1.8 ± 0.0040 a | 1.8 ± 0.0014 b | 1.8 ± 0.00061 b | 1.8 ± 0.00040 b | 1.8 ± 0.00024 b | 1.8 ± 0.0040 a | 1.8 ± 0.0033 a | 1.8 ± 0.0041 a | 1.8 ± 0.0026 a | 1.8 ± 0.0023 a | 1.8 ± 0.00023 b | 1.8 ± 0.0030 a | 1.8 ± 0.0069 a | 1.8 ± 0.056 a | 1.8 ± 0.0082 a | 1.8 ± 0.0017 a |
P-hydrobenzoic acid | 14.3 ± 2.89 a | 14.3 ± 2.85 a | 2.0 ± 0.35 b | 2.8 ± 0.92 b | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND |
Caffeic acid | 11.3 ± 0.62 a | 11.3 ± 0.68 a | 6.6 ± 0.83 b | 2.6 ± 0.75 c | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND |
Vanillic acid | 12.3 ± 0.924 a | 12.2 ± 0.902 a | 8.1 ± 0.102 b | 4.3 ± 1.13 c | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND |
Rutin | 41.0 ± 2.04 f | 38.5 ± 5.4 f | 48.6 ± 1.4 d | 51.0 ± 1.61 c | 51.5 ± 0.29 cd | 51.5 ± 0.27 cd | 36.9 ± 0.83 g | 120.0 ± 12.9 a | 26.9 ± 0.094 h | 26.8 ± 0.13 h | 44.7 ± 0.058 f | 44.7 ± 0.058 f | 15.1 ± 0.96 j | 15.1 ± 0.96 j | 17.5 ± 0.25 i | 92.1 ± 5.47 b |
P-coumaric acid | 9.8 ± 1.67 a | 10.1 ± 1.99 a | 8.3 ± 0.84 b | 3.8 ± 1.81 c | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND |
Isoquercetin | 13.1 ± 1.68 bd | 13.2 ± 1.73 d | 16.4 ± 1.72 c | 19.4 ±2.01 b | 12.7 ± 0.89 ae | 12.7 ± 0.91 e | 12.6 ± 0.35 f | 68.2 ± 6.44 a | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND |
Quercetin | 33.6 ± 1.49 d | 33.7 ± 1.53 d | 40.7 ± 2.11 c | 43.5 ± 2.38 c | 39.1 ± 8.03 b | 39.2 ± 80 b | 32.2 ± 1.44 e | 114.0 ± 7.85 a | 12.4 ± 1.18 h | 12.5 ± 1.16 h | 24.6 ± 3.34 f | 19.9 ± 5.15 g | ND | ND | ND | ND |
Kampferol-3-O-rutinoside | ND | ND | ND | ND | 3.5 ± 0.71 de | 3.7 ± 0.65 d | 1.2 ± 1.41 g | 14.4 ± 2.34 a | 1.6 ± 0.49 f | 1.8 ± 0.47 f | 2.8 ± 0.96 e | 8.49 ± 0.29 c | 9.3 ± 4.09 b | 9.1 ± 4.13 b | 8.4 ± 0.60 c | 9.39 ± 0.30 b |
Sinapic acid | 5.8 ± 10 a | 5.5 ± 1.31 a | 1.7 ± 0.43 b | 2.26 ± 1.19 b | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND |
Ferulic acid | 7.1 ± 1.98 ba | 7.3 ± 1.80 a | 5.0 ± 0.27 b | 2.0 ± 0.92 c | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND |
Gallic acid | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND |
Coumarin | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND |
Ellagic acid | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND |
Compound | A. caudatus | A. hypochondriacus | A. cruentus | A. spinosus | ||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Control DI | 30° DI | 35° DI | 40° DI | Control DI | 30° DI | 35° DI | 40° DI | Control DI | 30° DI | 35° DI | 40° DI | Control DI | 30° DI | 35° DI | 40° DI | |
Catechin | 1.8 ± 6.3 × 10−6 f | 1.8 ± 0.012 c | 1.8 ± 0.0071 b | 1.8 ± 0.00887 b | 1.8 ± 0.00051 d | 1.8 ± 0.00051 d | 1.8 ± 0.0024 b | 1.8 ± 0.001 c | 1.8 ± 0.001 c | 1.81 ± 0.0014 a | 1.8 ± 0.0068 b | 1.8 ± 0.0015 c | 1.8 ± 0.00022 e | 1.8 ± 0.0015 c | 1.8 ± 0.00047 d | 1.8 ± 0.00057 de |
P-hydrobenzoic acid | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND |
Caffeic acid | 4.25 ± 0 c | 4.28 ± 0.043 bc | 7.05 ± 0.12 a | 4.54 ± 0.27 b | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND |
Vanillic acid | 1.96 ± 0.84 c | 3.04 ± 0.22 b | 3.61 ± 0.053 b | 9.16 ± 4.11 a | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND |
Rutin | 79.5 ± 4.64 c | 79.7 ± 4.6 c | 106 ± 5.33 a | 87.9 ± 1.11 c | 73.9 ± 2.57 d | 74.2 ± 2.13 d | 73.3 ± 1.3 gd | 46 ± 3.26 g | 51.6 ± 4.63 f | 51.6 ± 4.56 f | 67.2 ± 0.53 e | 35.6 ± 0.90 i | 71.1 ± 28.4 b | 71.2 ± 28.40 b | 40.2 ± 1.14 h | 33 ± 3.06 i |
P-coumaric acid | 1.66 ± 1.41 b | 1.7 ± 1.38 b | 3.01 ± 2.52 a | 1.75 ± 0.058 c | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND |
Isoquercetin | 35.8 ± 3.21 b | 35.8 ± 3.24 b | 49.8 ± 3.42 a | 39.6 ± 0.14 b | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND |
Quercetin | 64 ± 5.30 b | 64 ± 5.32 b | 87.9 ± 7.77 a | 70.5 ± 0.41 b | 51.5 ± 9.93 c | 51.5 ± 9.88 c | 56.1 ± 2.01 c | 28.7 ± 4.05 f | 32.8 ± 6.64 e | 32.9 ± 6.67 e | 39.3 ± 7.88 d | 16.4 ± 0.218 g | 5.79 ± 0.68 i | 5.82 ± 0.68 i | 12.2 ± 0.073 h | 12.4 ± 0.20 h |
Kampferol-3-O-rutinoside | 5.02 ± 0.68 e | 5.27 ± 1.01 e | 9.49 ± 0.67 b | 2.45 ± 0.31 g | 7.36 ± 0.42 c | 7.61 ± 0.18 c | 8.09 ± 0.74 b | 1.53 ± 0.89 h | 2.26 ± 1.69 fg | 2.51 ± 2.17 ef | 12 ± 0.0056 a | 5.95 ± 0.073 d | 2.6 ± 0.23 f | 2.85 ± 0.22 f | 5.12 ± 0.17 e | 1.97 ± 0.25 h |
Sinapic acid | 3.58 ± 0.018 a | 3.83 ± 0.49 a | 1.28 ± 0.39 c | 2.62 ± 1.07 b | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND |
Ferulic acid | 6.95 ± 1.14 a | 7.45 ± 0.39 a | 6.22 ± 2.59 b | 4.41 ± 1.14 d | ND | ND | ND | ND | 2.5 ± 0.26 e | 2.52 ± 0.26 e | 5.92 ± 0.35 c | 5.36 ± 0.32 cd | ND | ND | ND | ND |
Gallic acid | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND |
Coumarin | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND |
Ellagic acid | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND |
Compound | A. caudatus | A. hypochondriacus | A. cruentus | A. spinosus | ||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Control WW | 30° WW | 35° WW | 40° WW | Control WW | 30° WW | 35° WW | 40° WW | Control WW | 30° WW | 35° WW | 40° WW | Control WW | 30° WW | 35° WW | 40° WW | |
Catechin | 1.8 ± 0.0012 a | 1.8 ± 0.0012 a | 1.8 ± 9.2 × 10−6 e | 1.8 ± 0.00042 b | 1.8 ± 0.000012 d | 1.8 ± 0.00012 c | 1.8 ± 0.00020 b | 1.8 ± 0.0022 a | 1.8 ± 0.00025 b | 1.8 ± 0.000091 cd | 1.8 ± 0.00017 b | 1.8 ± 0.000067 bc | 1.8 ± 0.00025 a | 1.8 ± 0.0016 b | 1.8 ± 0.000086 cd | 1.8 ± 0.00011 c |
P-hydrobenzoic acid | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND |
Caffeic acid | 7.68 ± 1.39 e | 7.71 ± 1.43 e | 6.26 ± 0.0093 d | 5.87 ± 1.38 c | 1.39 ± 0.82 a | 1.4 ± 0.82 a | 3.6 ± 10 b | 248 ± 1.68 f | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND |
Vanillic acid | 9.16 ± 4.11 b | 9.1 ± 4.11 b | 18.2 ± 6.84 a | 11.6 ± 0.57 b | 1.56 ± 0.12 e | 1.51 ± 0.11 f | 1.98 ± 0.52 d | 3.02 ± 0.50 c | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND |
Rutin | 3 ± 0.022 bc | 3.25 ± 0.49 b | 1.75 ± 0.018 f | 2.18 ± 0.046 d | 2.02 ± 0.081 d | 2.07 ± 0.13 d | 1.6 ± 0.020 g | 2.38 ± 0.037 c | 1.84 ± 0.24 e | 1.87 ± 0.19 e | 1.8 ± 0.15 ef | 1.86 ± 0.14 e | 11.5 ± 0.014 a | 12 ± 0.015 a | 1.84 ± 0.13 e | 1.67 ± 0.14 f |
P-coumaric acid | 34.5 ± 2.55 b | 34.6 ± 2.57 b | 43.9 ± 9.74 a | 44 ± 7.36 a | 13.9 ± 0.082 c | 13.9 ± 0.14 c | 3.76 ± 0.49 d | 1.73 ± 1.28 d | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND |
Isoquercetin | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND |
Quercetin | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | 3.1 ± 0 d | 3.12 ± 0.02 d | 3.62 ± 0.59 c | 4.12 ± 0.82 b | 13 ± 0.15 a | 12.9 ± 0.19 a | 13 ± 0.13 a | 13 ± 0.45 a |
Kampferol-3-O-rutinoside | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | 6.93 ± 0.15 a | 6.91 ± 0.19 a | 1.128 ± 0.0021 b | 1.448 ± 0.0021 b |
Sinapic acid | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND |
Ferulic acid | 50.5 ± 0.21 a | 48 ± 4.9 a | 45 ± 2.65 a | 30 ± 6.05 c | 20.3 ± 8.5 d | 21.6 ± 7.63 d | 15.9 ± 0.47 e | 14.3 ± 2.90 e | 12.1 ± 2.35 f | 12.2 ± 2.30 f | 11.5 ± 2.33 g | 6.85 ± 1.22 h | 4.71 ± 0.43 j | 4.96 ± 0.80 j | 5.33 ± 0.34 i | 4.55 ± 0.30 j |
Gallic acid | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND |
Coumarin | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND |
Ellagic acid | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND |
Compound | A. caudatus | A. hypochondriacus | A. cruentus | A. spinosus | ||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Control DI | 30° DI | 35° DI | 40° DI | Control DI | 30° DI | 35° DI | 40° DI | Control DI | 30° DI | 35° DI | 40° DI | Control DI | 30° DI | 35° DI | 40° DI | |
Catechin | 1.8 ± 0.0011 c | 1.8 ± 0.0021 b | 1.8 ± 0.00029 e | 1.8 ± 0.00029 e | 1.8 ± 0.00035 e | 1.8 ± 0.00012 f | 1.8 ± 0.0011 c | 1.81 ± 0.0078 a | 1.8 ± 0.0014 bc | 1.8 ± 0.0015 bc | 1.8 ± 0.00046 de | 1.8 ± 0.00047 de | 1.8 ± 0.00068 d | 1.8 ± 0.00077 d | 1.8 ± 0.00011 f | 1.8 ± 0.00004 g |
P-hydrobenzoic acid | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND |
Caffeic acid | 10.7 ± 0.058 c | 10.8 ± 0.058 c | 4.7 ± 0.53 d | 4.25 ± 0 e | 528 ± 3.63 b | 532 ± 3.66 a | 3.21 ± 0.18 f | 1.2 ± 0.74 g | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND |
Vanillic acid | 13.5 ± 0.091 a | 13.5 ± 0.082 a | 2.82 ± 0.23 c | 7.19 ± 0 b | 1.34 ± 0.099 f | 1.34 ± 0.098 f | 1.23 ± 0.58 e | 2.18 ± 0.49 d | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND |
Rutin | 2.23 ± 0.0019 d | 2.23 ± 0.0067 d | 1.73 ± 0.018 bf | 2.04 ± 0 e | 4.78 ± 0.22 b | 4.8 ± 0.19 b | 2.43 ± 0.0086 c | 2.47 ± 0.051 c | 1.71 ± 0.03 g | 1.75 ± 0.063 f | 1.71 ± 0.010 g | 1.65 ± 0.013 gh | 1.52 ± 0.021 h | 1.53 ± 0.024 h | 7.29 ± 0.40 a | 4.74 ± 0.44 b |
P-coumaric acid | 54.9 ± 2.92 a | 55 ± 2.91 a | 4.3 ± 0.55 d | 4.67 ± 0 d | 5.6 ± 0.50 cd | 5.61 ± 0.51 c | 6.33 ± 1.94 b | 6.92 ± 0.0089 bc | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND |
Isoquercetin | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND |
Quercetin | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND |
Kampferol-3-O-rutinoside | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND |
Sinapic acid | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND |
Ferulic acid | 53.1 ± 1.32 b | 55.6 ± 4.53 a | 9.72 ± 0.41 e | 2.89 ± 0 g | 24 ± 1.35 c | 24.6 ± 1.26 c | 16.5 ± 1.15 d | 17 ± 2.18 d | ND | ND | ND | ND | 5.07 ± 0.66 f | 5.32 ± 0.83 f | 4.34 ± 0.68 f | 0.861 ± 0.078 h |
Gallic acid | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND |
Coumarin | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND |
Ellagic acid | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND |
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Netshimbupfe, M.H.; Berner, J.; Van Der Kooy, F.; Oladimeji, O.; Gouws, C. Influence of Drought and Heat Stress on Mineral Content, Antioxidant Activity and Bioactive Compound Accumulation in Four African Amaranthus Species. Plants 2023, 12, 953. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants12040953
Netshimbupfe MH, Berner J, Van Der Kooy F, Oladimeji O, Gouws C. Influence of Drought and Heat Stress on Mineral Content, Antioxidant Activity and Bioactive Compound Accumulation in Four African Amaranthus Species. Plants. 2023; 12(4):953. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants12040953
Chicago/Turabian StyleNetshimbupfe, Mmbulaheni Happiness, Jacques Berner, Frank Van Der Kooy, Olakunle Oladimeji, and Chrisna Gouws. 2023. "Influence of Drought and Heat Stress on Mineral Content, Antioxidant Activity and Bioactive Compound Accumulation in Four African Amaranthus Species" Plants 12, no. 4: 953. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants12040953