Perinatal Predictors and Mediators of Attachment Patterns in Preschool Children: Exploration of Children’s Contributions in Interactions with Mothers
Abstract
:1. Introduction
1.1. Children’s Attachment Patterns and Outcomes
1.2. Depression, Social Support, Cortisol, and Children’s Attachment Patterns
1.3. Parent–Child Interaction and Child Attachment: Children’s Contributions
1.4. Sociodemographic Factors
1.5. Rationale and Purpose of This Study
2. Methods
2.1. Study Design, Setting, and Sample
2.2. Procedures, Data Collection, and Measures Used
2.3. Prenatal Predictors
2.4. Postnatal Mediators
2.5. Outcomes
3. Statistical Analysis
4. Ethical Approval
5. Results
Participant Demographics
6. Exploratory Phase: Determining Relevant Variables
6.1. Identifying Statistically Relevant Predictor Variables
6.2. Identifying Statistically Relevant Mediators
7. Models Including Adjustment for Relevant Covariates
7.1. Direct Effects of Mothers’ Prenatal Cortisol on Children’s Disorganized Attachment
7.2. Effects of Postnatal Variables on Children’s Disorganized Attachment
7.3. Serial Mediation Pathways
8. Models Including the Residualized Mothers’ Prenatal Cortisol Predictor Variable
8.1. Direct Effects of Mothers’ Prenatal Cortisol on Children’s Disorganized Attachment
8.2. Effects of the Postnatal Variables on Children’s Disorganized Attachment
8.3. Serial Mediation Pathways
9. Discussion
9.1. Mothers’ Prenatal Cortisol Levels and Postnatal Mediators and Outcomes
9.2. Children Are Influential Partners during Parent–Child Interactions
9.3. Secure Versus Insecure Attachment: Null Findings
9.4. Impacts of Relevant Covariates
9.5. Implications for Intervention
9.6. Limitations, Strengths, and Future Directions
10. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Variables | Frequency or Mean (SD) | Percentage (%) |
---|---|---|
Sociodemographic Variables | ||
Maternal Education | ||
Below university degree | 60 | 28 |
University degree or more Missing data | 151 3 | 70.6 1.4 |
Ethnicity | ||
White | 172 | 80.4 |
Non-White Missing data | 40 2 | 18.7 0.9 |
Marital Status | ||
Single | 2 | 0.9 |
Married Missing data | 209 3 | 97.6 1.4 |
Parity | ||
0 | 107 | 50.0 |
1 | 82 | 38.3 |
2 or more Missing data | 24 1 | 11.2 0.5 |
Household Income | ||
Less than CAD 70 k | 39 | 18.2 |
CAD 70 k or more Missing data | 169 6 | 79.0 2.8 |
Gestational Age at Birth | ||
<37 weeks | 10 | 4.7 |
37 and more weeks Missing data | 202 2 | 94.4 0.9 |
Child Sex | ||
Male | 108 | 50.4 |
Female Missing data | 105 1 | 49.1 0.5 |
Mothers’ Age (years) | 31.8 (3.84) | |
Birthweight (grams) | 3365 (531) | |
Child Age at Attachment Assessment (months) | 22.1 (4.43) | |
Predictors and Mediators | ||
Parent–Child Interaction Infant passivity | 4.55 (3.71) | |
Infant compulsivity | 1.89 (3.64) | |
Infant difficulty | 2.77 (2.74) | |
Cortisol Maternal cortisol (area under the curve ground) at mean 15 (SD = 3.7) weeks’ gestation (μg/dL) Maternal cortisol (area under the curve increase) at mean 15 (SD = 3.7) weeks’ gestation (μg/dL) Child cortisol (area under the curve ground) at 6 months (μg/dL) Child cortisol (area under the curve increase) at 6 months (μg/dL) | 1.73 (0.47) 2.42 (3.29) 0.13 (0.07) 0.004 (0.04) | |
Outcomes | ||
Disorganized vs. Organized Attachment (Secure or Insecure) | ||
Disorganized | 35 | 16.4 |
Organized | 179 | 83.6 |
Secure vs. Non-Secure Attachment (Insecure or Disorganized) | ||
Secure | 99 | 46.3 |
Non-secure | 115 | 53.7 |
Indirect Effect | Effect | Bootstrap SE | 95% CI |
---|---|---|---|
Total Indirect Effect | 0.0015 | 0.0012 | −0.0003, 0.0045 |
0.0012 | 0.0012 | −0.0006, 0.0042 | |
Ind 1 (a): maternal prenatal cortisol (AUCg) → infant cortisol (AUCi) → disorganized vs. organized | 0.0005 | 0.0008 | −0.0005, 0.0026 |
0.0005 | 0.0009 | −0.0006, 0.0030 | |
Ind 2 (b): maternal prenatal cortisol (AUCg) → infant passivity → disorganized vs. organized | 0.0010 | 0.0008 | −0.0003, 0.0029 |
0.0007 | 0.0008 | −0.0006, 0.0025 | |
Ind 3 (c1): maternal prenatal cortisol (AUCg) → infant cortisol (AUCi) → infant passivity → disorganized vs. organized | 0.0000 | 0.0001 | −0.0002, 0.0002 |
0.0000 | 0.0001 | −0.0002, 0.0003 |
Indirect Effect | Effect | Bootstrap SE | 95% CI |
---|---|---|---|
Total Indirect Effect | 0.0015 | 0.0012 | −0.0006, 0.0043 |
0.0016 | 0.0014 | −0.0007, 0.0048 | |
Ind 1 (a): maternal prenatal cortisol (AUCg) → infant cortisol (AUCi) → disorganized vs. organized | 0.0007 | 0.0010 | −0.0004, 0.0032 |
0.0008 | 0.0011 | −0.0005, 0.0037 | |
Ind 2 (b): maternal prenatal cortisol (AUCg) → infant compulsivity → disorganized vs. organized | 0.0010 | 0.0008 | −0.0006, 0.0027 |
0.0011 | 0.0010 | −0.0008, 0.0033 | |
Ind 3 (c1): maternal prenatal cortisol (AUCg) → infant cortisol (AUCi) → infant compulsivity → disorganized vs. organized | −0.0002 | 0.0002 | −0.0008, 0.0001 |
−0.0002 | 0.0003 | −0.0009, 0.0001 |
Indirect Effect | Effect | Bootstrap SE | 95% CI |
---|---|---|---|
Total Indirect Effect | 0.0016 | 0.0013 | −0.0004, 0.0046 |
0.0012 | 0.0013 | −0.0008, 0.0044 | |
Ind 1 (a): maternal prenatal cortisol (AUCg) → infant cortisol (AUCi) → disorganized vs. organized | 0.0006 | 0.0009 | −0.0006, 0.0029 |
0.0006 | 0.0010 | −0.0008, 0.0033 | |
Ind 2 (b): maternal prenatal cortisol (AUCg) → infant passivity → disorganized vs. organized | 0.0010 | 0.0008 | −0.0003, 0.0029 |
0.0007 | 0.0008 | −0.0007, 0.0024 | |
Ind 3 (c1): maternal prenatal cortisol (AUCg) → infant cortisol (AUCi) → infant passivity → disorganized vs. organized | 0.0000 | 0.0001 | −0.0003, 0.0003 |
0.0000 | 0.0001 | −0.0003, 0.0003 |
Indirect Effect | Effect | Bootstrap SE | 95% CI |
---|---|---|---|
Total Indirect Effect | 0.0015 | 0.0013 | −0.0007, 0.0044 |
0.0016 | 0.0015 | −0.0008, 0.0050 | |
Ind 1(a): maternal prenatal cortisol (AUCg) → infant cortisol (AUCi) → disorganized vs. organized | 0.0008 | 0.0011 | −0.0005, 0.0036 |
0.0009 | 0.0012 | −0.0005, 0.0041 | |
Ind 2 (b): maternal prenatal cortisol (AUCg) → infant compulsivity → disorganized vs. organized | 0.0010 | 0.0008 | −0.0007, 0.0027 |
0.0010 | 0.0010 | −0.0009, 0.0033 | |
Ind 3 (c1): maternal prenatal cortisol (AUCg) → infant cortisol (AUCi) → infant compulsivity → disorganized vs. organized | −0.0002 | 0.0003 | −0.0009, 0.0001 |
−0.0003 | 0.0003 | −0.0010, 0.0001 |
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Kurbatfinski, S.; Woo, J.; Ntanda, H.; Giesbrecht, G.; Letourneau, N. Perinatal Predictors and Mediators of Attachment Patterns in Preschool Children: Exploration of Children’s Contributions in Interactions with Mothers. Children 2024, 11, 1022. https://doi.org/10.3390/children11081022
Kurbatfinski S, Woo J, Ntanda H, Giesbrecht G, Letourneau N. Perinatal Predictors and Mediators of Attachment Patterns in Preschool Children: Exploration of Children’s Contributions in Interactions with Mothers. Children. 2024; 11(8):1022. https://doi.org/10.3390/children11081022
Chicago/Turabian StyleKurbatfinski, Stefan, Jennifer Woo, Henry Ntanda, Gerald Giesbrecht, and Nicole Letourneau. 2024. "Perinatal Predictors and Mediators of Attachment Patterns in Preschool Children: Exploration of Children’s Contributions in Interactions with Mothers" Children 11, no. 8: 1022. https://doi.org/10.3390/children11081022