One Health Ethics and the Ethics of Zoonoses: A Silent Call for Global Action
Abstract
:Simple Summary
Abstract
1. Introduction: Incremental Risks of Zoonotic Diseases
2. Zoonoethics, Global Bioethics, and One Health: We Need “One Bioethics”?
- (i)
- Primary prevention: zoonoethics, in close collaboration with the One Health ethics [29,30,139,158,159,160,161], can offer descriptive and epistemic resources for transforming our understanding of and interconnections with nonhuman beings and environments (both natural and built), as well as for clarifying our relationships with them. Primary prevention aims to anticipate risks before they become fully manifest. As Plowright et al. [162] (p. 2) show: “Primary pandemic prevention is the set of actions taken to reduce the risk of pathogen spillover from animals to humans, focusing on processes upstream of the spillover event”. The first preventive measure to reduce zoonotic risks and the spread of viruses with pandemic potential is to practice ecological wisdom related to the holistic protection of species and the care of the biodiversity of ecosystem hotspots. As highlighted by Vora et al. [163] (p. 420), “tropical and subtropical forests must be protected”.
- (ii)
- Secondary prevention: Primary prevention is, by definition, anticipatory, while secondary prevention focuses on the implementation of specific measures, such as early detection, vaccines, improved health systems, and drug therapy, but these are established in the ongoing process of preventing the outbreak from becoming an epidemic or pandemic [164,165]. At this stage, zoonoethics can provide a framework for setting standards and guiding policymakers on what actions are most effective, fair, and ethically relevant to prevent the escalation of the outbreak. One of the paradoxes of primary prevention is that it is largely undervalued as an effective strategy for responding to pandemic risks, while the great paradox of secondary prevention is that many interventions focus on implementing public health measures that may have adverse effects in order to contain the spread of spillover. However, there is sufficient evidence to support the idea that the most cost-effective, wise, and politically relevant strategy for preventing future pandemics is to invest in prevention and capacity building in the context of future sustainability [2,20,166,167].
- (iii)
- Antimicrobial Stewardship (AMS): Zoonoethics can help to address the problems associated with antimicrobial resistance and to develop a more robust and comprehensive approach to AMS [168,169,170]. As Shallcross et al. [76] (p. 4) stresses: “If AMR is allowed to continue unchecked, we may enter a ‘post-antibiotic era’ of medicine, in which treatments from minor surgery to major transplants could become impossible, mortality will rise, and healthcare costs will spiral as we resort to newer, more expensive antibiotics and sustain a greater number of longer hospital admissions”. AMS is an ethical approach that takes very seriously the growing threat of entering a “post-antibiotic era”. Curbing the emergence and spread of these resistant organisms and agents is a high priority not only in epidemiological surveillance and drug development programs but also in inclusive public policies aimed at reducing inequities in access to safe and affordable medicines for all. As Dyar et al. [171] (p. 793) states: “Although antimicrobial stewardship originated within human healthcare, it is increasingly applied in broader contexts including animal health and One Health”. Experts in zoonoethics can significantly contribute to the efforts of antimicrobial stewardship (AMS) in addressing this issue. Zoonoethics can provide valuable insights and frameworks that can enhance the AMS strategies across different domains—animal health, human health, agriculture, and livestock. Firstly, zoonoethics emphasizes the interconnectedness of ecosystems and the ethical considerations that arise from this interconnectedness. By integrating zoonoethics principles, AMS experts can develop more holistic policies that consider the welfare of all species affected by antimicrobial use. This approach aligns with the One Health perspective, which recognizes the interdependence of human, animal, and environmental health. Moreover, zoonoethics can offer tools such as ethical risk assessments and value-based decision-making frameworks. These tools enable stakeholders to evaluate the implications of antimicrobial use and resistance not only from a scientific standpoint but also through an ethical lens, considering the long-term consequences for all species. For instance, ethical risk assessments can help identify practices that may inadvertently contribute to AMR and propose alternatives that are ethically and ecologically sound. My perspective on the problem of antimicrobial resistance is enriched by the multispecies justice approach, which seeks to integrate other species and wildlife into risk analyses [172,173,174].
3. The Ethical Dilemmas of One Health: The Case of Animal Slaughter, Outline of One-Zoonoethics
Guideline | Description | Problem/Challenge | Authors |
---|---|---|---|
1. Develop Alternatives to Culling | Invest in research and development of alternatives to animal culling, such as vaccination or quarantine measures. | Reducing the need for mass culling and minimizing harm to animal populations. | [261,276] |
2. Strengthen Ethical Review Processes | Implement stringent ethical review processes for animal culling decisions, ensuring consideration of multispecies justice and ecological impacts. | Ensuring ethical considerations are thoroughly evaluated before making culling decisions. | [137,247] |
3. Surveillance and Monitoring | Establish systems for early detection and tracking of zoonotic diseases to respond quickly and effectively. | Timely detection and response to emerging zoonotic diseases. | [18,111,163,277] |
4. Research and Development | Promote interdisciplinary research and develop new vaccines and treatments to combat zoonotic diseases. | Addressing gaps in knowledge and developing effective interventions. | [278,279] |
5. One Health Education and Ecological Awareness | Incorporate OH core competencies and strengthening educational programs, including zoonoethics and AMR ethics for children, youth, and future professionals across the curriculum. | Increasing public understanding and engagement in zoonosis prevention. | [280,281,282,283,284] |
6. Policies and Regulations | Create and enforce regulations to manage human–animal interactions and support sustainable practices. | Implementing bioethical and legal frameworks to prevent zoonotic disease transmission. | [19,20,285,286] |
7. Ethical Disaster Management and Global Cooperation | Develop and implement ethical guidelines and rapid response plans for health crises and natural disasters, protecting animal welfare and preventing zoonotic outbreaks. | Ensure preparedness, minimize harm, and respond ethically to zoonotic outbreaks during crises. | [150,287,288,289,290] |
8. Open Science for Future Pandemic Resilience | Develop future-oriented OH policies that enhance data analysis capabilities to understand disease dynamics and ensure the availability, quality, and management of accurate data for evidence-based decision-making. | Open science can greatly enhance OH pandemic responses by enabling rapid data sharing and collaboration. | [291,292] |
9. Engage Local and Indigenous Communities | Engage local communities in zoonosis prevention and control, while fostering intercultural dialogue by integrating indigenous perspectives into One Health. | Ensuring local communities have a voice and active role in zoonosis prevention efforts in all levels. | [293,294,295] |
10. Sustainable and Resilient Health Systems (SRHS) | Health systems need to develop new capacities and build synergies with other sectors and organizations to address risks of ERIDs. | Build better, more climate-resilient and environmentally sustainable health systems. | [296,297,298] |
11. Enhance Biosecurity Measures | Implement comprehensive biosecurity protocols in intensive farming operations, including regular health monitoring and rapid response plans. | Preventing the spread of infectious diseases within and between animal populations to avoid large-scale outbreaks. | [55,164,298] |
12. Promote Sustainable and One Welfare Farming Practices | Encourage sustainable and farming practices guided by interspecies ethics, reducing animal density and improving living conditions to lower disease risk. | Mitigating the conditions that facilitate the spread of zoonotic diseases in high-density farming and livestock. | [299,300] |
4. Antimicrobial Resistance at the Human–Animal–Environment Interfaces: A Call for Global Action to Face the Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR)
5. Zoonoethics, Intercultural Dialogue, and Entangled Empathy: A Silent Call for Interspecies Solidarity
6. A Call for Urgent Action: Policy Recommendations for an Inclusive, Intercultural, and Gender-Sensitive One Health Approach
- Advance international legislation to recognize the international crime of ecocide and crimes against biodiversity, not only as circumscribed and peripheral damages that affect human health but as damages that affect the health of humans, animals, and environments and constitute an attack against future generations.
- Stop the illegal wildlife trade, the slaughter of wild animals in wet markets, and the illegal timber trade in tropical forests, especially in areas of high biodiversity in Asia, Africa, and the Americas. This requires deepening the partnership against wildlife crime and developing new intercultural capacities to reconnect human and nonhuman animals, places, and the planet.
- We need closer transdisciplinary collaboration, including gender and intercultural perspectives, to study the socioeconomic, cultural, and environmental determinants and drivers of zoonotic diseases: “Developing a multi-sectoral preparedness and response plans for control of zoonotic diseases through a comprehensive risk assessment, improving laboratory diagnostic capacities, joint surveillance activities at the animal-human interface” [111,350].
- Strengthen political commitment, national planning, and regional coordination mechanisms; this requires working towards a One Health approach based on principles of intersectionality, interculturality and global solidarity. These plans and long-term strategies should be evaluated from a complexity approach at the local, regional, and global levels [66,288,290].
- Promote equitable and long-term synergies between Western health systems and local and indigenous community health knowledge systems and practices. Additionally, we need to create innovative strategies and establish regional and global information networks to facilitate knowledge sharing and enhance collaborative efforts to manage risks across the various interfaces of One Health. In particular, the wildlife–livestock–human interface is one of the areas of greatest risk and vulnerability.
- Promoting a One Digital Health approach: Europe, the United States, and other high-income countries have strong epidemiological surveillance systems that provide access to comprehensive data, tables, and maps on infectious diseases, but low- and middle-income countries in regions such as South and Central Asia, Africa, and Central and South America do not yet have robust surveillance systems to develop systemic preparedness, mitigation, and prevention plans and strategies for zoonotic diseases.
- One of the challenges highlighted by the COVID-19 pandemic was the need to work together across sectors and regions to develop greater North–South synergies of cooperation, equity, and multispecies justice to lay the foundations for a sustainable One Health system based on a broad vision of health, common goods, and eco-solidarity.
7. Conclusions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Ethical Principles | Zoonotic Ethics Guidelines | Problem/Challenge |
---|---|---|
Autonomy | Respect the autonomy of communities and individuals in One Health decision-making. | Ensuring individual and community rights are upheld during public health interventions. |
Beneficence | Implement measures that maximize well-being and minimize harm for both humans, animals, and environments. | Balancing the benefits of interventions against potential risks and harms. |
Non-maleficence | Avoid actions that cause unnecessary harm, such as the indiscriminate culling of animals without comprehensive ethical analysis. | Preventing unethical practices that could cause harm to animals and ecosystems. |
Justice | Ensure the equitable distribution of resources and treatments to prevent and control zoonotic diseases. Ensuring universal access to health innovations and vaccines. | Addressing disparities in access to healthcare and resources for disease prevention and control. |
Ethical Deliberation/ Constructive Conflict | Consider all relevant interests at stake and integrate the value and welfare of human animals when implementing management plans and measures to control zoonoses. Strategies: Multi-layered and multi-actor assessment. Context-dependent analysis | Mitigate the negative impacts and side-effects on nonhuman animals of strategies and plans to control zoonoses and epidemic risks. |
Environmental Responsibility | It is imperative to adopt responsible practices in all sectors that safeguard ecosystems and biodiversity, acknowledging their integral role in One Health and the secure survival of future generations. | Mitigating the impact of human activities on ecosystems and preventing biodiversity loss. |
Transparency and Communication | Maintain open and honest communication with the public about risks and measures taken to control zoonoses. | Building public trust and ensuring informed participation in public health measures. |
Respect for Life | Value and protect the lives of all living beings, recognizing the interdependence between humans, animals, and environments. | Promoting a holistic view of life that includes the well-being of all species. |
Solidarity and Cooperation | Promote international collaboration and solidarity among nations to combat global zoonotic threats. | Fostering global cooperation to address transboundary zoonotic disease threats. |
Precaution and Prudence | Adopt preventive and prudent measures in the face of scientific uncertainty and potential risks of new zoonoses. | Taking proactive steps to prevent outbreaks even when full scientific certainty is not available. |
Intergenerational Equity | Make decisions that do not compromise the health and well-being of future generations. Avoid practices and policies that transfer risks and damages to future generations. Inter/trans-generational justices. | Ensuring sustainable practices that do not deplete resources or harm future generations. |
Care | It is imperative that robust legislation be enacted to address the crime of ecocide, including the introduction of criminal laws to deter and punish the systematic destruction of biodiversity and the trafficking of wildlife. | Mitigation of large-scale species extinction and crimes against biodiversity |
Category | Recommendation | Rationale |
---|---|---|
Preventive Action | Accelerate the implementation of the One Health approach from a preventive and anticipatory lens. Shifting from reactive to proactive zoonotic risk mitigation model is essential. | Implement a preventive One Health strategy with a precautionary approach helps to address the root causes of AMR and promotes sustainable practices [135,318]. |
Biosecurity Processes | Ensure that all medical and veterinary waste undergoes effective decontamination processes, such as autoclaving or chemical disinfection, to eliminate pathogens and reduce the risk of AMR. | Proper waste management and biosecurity tools minimizes the ecological footprint of animal and healthcare practices, reducing environmental pollution and the spread of AMR [319]. |
Sustainable Food and Agricultural Practices | Promote sustainable agriculture and livestock practices, reducing antimicrobial use in food production to prevent resistant pathogens. | Sustainable practices prevent AMR by reducing unnecessary antimicrobial use and promoting ethical treatment of animals and the environment [317,320,321,322]. |
Public Policy | Educate public policy experts on the complexity of zoonoses, EIDs, and AMR from a One Health and multispecies justice perspective. | Informed policymakers can develop more effective policies to address AMR, considering its broader impact on public health and the environment [253,323,324]. |
Antimicrobial Stewardship | Promote interdisciplinary and Antimicrobial Stewardship programs to ensure the responsible use of antimicrobials in human and animal healthcare, agriculture, and food-chains. | Antimicrobial Stewardship programs help mitigate the overuse and misuse of antimicrobials, reducing the development of resistant pathogens [319,325,326,327]. |
Infrastructure Improvement | Improve infrastructure for clean water, sanitation, and waste management to prevent the spread of resistant microbes. | Improving infrastructure tackles AMR’s root causes in low-resource settings by addressing inadequate sanitation and waste management [322,327]. |
Ethical Reflection | Encourage ethical reflection on healthcare practices, animal treatment, and environmental impact in decision-making processes. | Ethical considerations ensure that actions taken to address AMR are just, sustainable, and responsible, benefiting all stakeholders involved [67,68,70,72]. |
One Health Education and Antibiotic Awareness | Increase public awareness and education about the causes and consequences of AMR and the importance of responsible antimicrobial use. | One Health education promotes responsible behavior and support for AMR-reducing policies, making ethical reflection on AMR crucial for a sustainable and just future [77,328]. |
Global Cooperation | Strengthen international cooperation and coordination in monitoring, research, and response to AMR. | Global cooperation is crucial for addressing AMR, as it is a transboundary issue that requires coordinated efforts across countries and regions. [329,330,331]. |
Food Chains and Water Systems | Strengthen and enforce regulations on the use of antibiotics in agriculture and aquaculture. | By regulating the use of antibiotics in food production, we can reduce the development of antibiotic-resistant bacteria in the environment, which can be transferred to humans through the food chain [323,324,332,333]. |
Multispecies Justice | Implement comprehensive OH policies that prioritize the welfare and the intrinsic value of all including environments, human, and nonhuman animals affected by AMR. | Addressing AMR ethically requires considering the impact on diverse species and ecosystems, ensuring fair treatment and health outcomes for all [253,334,335]. |
One Welfare | One Welfare by integrating animal, environmental, and public health in antimicrobial stewardship policies. | Integrating this approach into AMR strategies enables sustainable, equitable solutions across all sectors [299,300,336]. |
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Rodriguez, J. One Health Ethics and the Ethics of Zoonoses: A Silent Call for Global Action. Vet. Sci. 2024, 11, 394. https://doi.org/10.3390/vetsci11090394
Rodriguez J. One Health Ethics and the Ethics of Zoonoses: A Silent Call for Global Action. Veterinary Sciences. 2024; 11(9):394. https://doi.org/10.3390/vetsci11090394
Chicago/Turabian StyleRodriguez, Jeyver. 2024. "One Health Ethics and the Ethics of Zoonoses: A Silent Call for Global Action" Veterinary Sciences 11, no. 9: 394. https://doi.org/10.3390/vetsci11090394