You are currently viewing a new version of our website. To view the old version click .
MDPIMDPI
Search all articles
Heritage
Download PDF
  • Article
  • Open Access

1 October 2025

Let the Lead Tags Talk—Terms on Carnuntum Tesserae Referring to Textiles, Colours and Dyeing in the 2nd Century CE

,
,
,
and
1
Independent Researcher, Formerly at the Department of Archaeometry, University of Applied Arts Vienna, 1010 Vienna, Austria
2
Archaeological Museum Zagreb, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia
3
Papyrus Collection of the Austrian National Library, 1010 Vienna, Austria
4
Austrian Archaeological Institute (OeAI) at the Austrian Academy of Sciences (OeAW), 1010 Vienna, Austria
Heritage2025, 8(10), 412;https://doi.org/10.3390/heritage8100412
This article belongs to the Special Issue Dyes in History and Archaeology 43
Version Notes
Order Reprints
Review Reports

Abstract

In the Roman Empire, lead tags were used for various purposes, one of which was to label textiles that needed cleaning, repairing or dyeing. So far, these tesserae have been found at over 90 sites in 13 Roman provinces. The cities of Siscia and Carnuntum in Pannonia Superior have the highest number of finds. In 2011, a Roman cesspit was excavated in the civil city of Carnuntum and dated to the mid-2nd century CE. The latrine contained household and food waste, human faeces, pottery shards, pollen, lime, amber and 179 lead tags. The tags bear inscriptions consisting of personal names, prices, and abbreviations of terms relating to garments, colours and services such as cleaning, mending, repairing, fulling, fumigating, perfuming, dyeing, and redyeing. The findings of Roman textiles unearthed in Carnuntum are too degraded to allow a successful dye analysis to be carried out. Therefore, the inscriptions are important sources for drawing conclusions about dyeing materials and techniques. This information was supplemented by ancient written sources as well as archaeobotanical finds of dye plants and dye analyses of archaeological textiles found in Central Europe dating from the same period or earlier.

1. Introduction

In the Roman Empire, commercial tags made of lead labelled trade products as well as personal belongings. These tags, also known as lead tesserae or lead labels, usually have a hole so that they can be attached to objects with a string or a metal wire. The systematic study of inscriptions is an important area of epigraphic research [,,,,,,,,]. Lead tesserae have been excavated in many Roman provinces [] (pp. 144–147), in the provinces of Britannia [,], Hispania Tarraconensis [,], Lusitania [], Gallia Belgica, Gallia Lugdunensis and Gallia Narbonensis [,,,,,,,,,,,], Germania Superior [,,,], Germania Inferior [], Raetia [,,], Italia [] (p. 122, footnote 8) [,,,,,,,,], Noricum [,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,], Pannonia Inferior [,] and Pannonia Superior [,,,,,,,,,,]. Most of them date between the 1st and 3rd century CE []. To date, approximately 2,200 lead tags originating from the Roman provinces have been identified.
The majority of the labels originate from two Roman cities in Pannonia Superior. 1123 were found in Siscia (now Sisak, Croatia) and date to the 1st and early 2nd centuries CE, whereas 179 were found in Carnuntum (now Petronell-Carnuntum, Austria) and date to the mid-2nd century CE [,]. The labels from both archaeological sites suggest a local use in a textile workshop for services such as fulling, cleaning, repairing, fumigating, perfuming, dyeing and redyeing. The craftsmen attached the lead tags to the textiles to make them easily returnable to customers. These workshops are known from written sources for fulling (fullonicae), for dyeing (officinae infectoriae) and for redyeing of worn clothes (officinae offectoriae). Other tesserae used in textile production or dyeing are known from Gallia Narbonensis: Fréjus (France) [], Germania Superior: Vitudurum-Oberwinterthur (Switserland) [,], Raetia: Forggensee bei Dietringen (Germany) [], Italia: Feltria-Feltre (Italy) [], and Noricum (Austria): Aelium Cetium-St. Pölten [], Immurium-Moosham [], Magdalensberg [,] and Kalsdorf [,,,,]. K. Gostenčnik provides an overview of lead labels found in Austria and related to textile production [] (pp. 94–102).

2. Materials and Methods

In 2011, a Roman cesspit was excavated near Petronell Castle, which was built in the 17th century CE (Figure 1) [,].
Figure 1. Profile of the Roman cesspit, located in Carnuntum near Petronell Castle, Photo: © B. Petznek, ARDIG—Archäologischer Dienst GesmbH.
This site was part of the Roman civil town of Carnuntum, the provincial capital of Pannonia Superior with a population of around 50,000 inhabitants. Three coins fell into the latrine in Roman times: a dupondius of Trajan (minting phase II: 98–117 CE), a dupondius from the reign of Antoninus Pius (minting period: 138–161 CE) and an As showing Faustina the Younger, wife of Marcus Aurelius (minting period: 161–164 CE) (Figure 2).
Figure 2. Layer plan of the Roman cesspit, supplemented by the information from numismatic dating. The lead tesserae originate from the yellow-coloured strata. Colour coding: yellow = primary backfill (phase I: up to mid-2nd century CE), green = secondary backfill (phase II: beginning with mid-2nd century CE), blue = final backfill (phase III: mid-3rd century CE). Profile drawing: B. Petznek [] (p. 123, modified).
Investigations into the finds from the latrine were carried out as part of numerous interdisciplinary research projects. The results will soon be published in a German anthology on the trade, economy, culture and natural environment in the Carnuntum Region during the Middle Imperial period. This will include the lead tags from Carnuntum (Petronell Castle) []. This article provides an overview of research into lead labels, with a focus on textile services, colours and dyeing. It also mentions analyses of coins conducted by U. Schachinger and isotope analyses of the lead carried out by R. Schwab and E. Pernicka [].
On the basis of the found coins, the cesspit is dated to the mid-2nd century CE. The date is supported by pottery shards from the first half of the 2nd century CE. In addition to the coins and pottery shards, the cesspit contained human faeces, disinfecting lime, parasites, pollen, animal and plant food waste, household waste and lost and discarded objects including a dice, bone needles, shoe nails, pearls, hair pins, amber and 256 lead finds. Archaeozoological, archaeobotanical, palynological, parasitological and chemical investigations have provided information about the flora and fauna, the state of health and the eating and living habits of the Carnuntum population in the 2nd century CE and the origin of the metal lead. The provenance of the metal lead was investigated using lead isotope analysis. It was found that the lead used for the Carnuntum tags originated from the silver-bearing lead mines of the Roman province of Moesia Superior, which is now part of Serbia.
A total of 179 of these metal finds are lead tags with engraved inscriptions on one or both sides. The lead labels are rectangular to square, approximately 40 mm long and 35 mm wide, and most of them have a hole. The inscriptions, completely or partially preserved, consist of letters written in Old Roman cursive, 2–4 mm high, with many abbreviations. One of the properties of lead is its softness, which enables inscriptions to be easily engraved. Another advantage is that a lead label could be reused after heating and hammering. Due to the environment in the latrine, the labels were badly corroded and encrusted with sediment. After cleaning and restoring the objects, X-ray images and CT-scans enabled I. Radman-Livaja to draw, transcribe and interpret the inscriptions []. Lead tag FN533-211-02 illustrates the steps required to make the inscription legible (see Figure 3a–g). Further information about the inscription on this label can be found in Section 12.
Figure 3. Lead tag FN533-2011-02 (a) non-restored. Photo: © M. Raab, ARDIG—Archäologischer Dienst GesmbH. (b) X-ray image. © M. Schäfer, University of Vienna, Department of Prehistoric and Historical Archaeology. (c) Computer tomography. © S. Handschuh, University of Veterinary Medicine, Vienna. (d,e) X-ray images, post-processed with image editing software. Photos: © B. Petznek. (f,g) Drawing and reading. © M. Galić and I. Radman-Livaja.
The article focuses on terms related to fumigating, mending and perfuming, as well as colours and Roman textile dyeing (see Section 5, Section 6 and Section 7 and Section 9, Section 10, Section 11, Section 12, Section 13, Section 14, Section 15 and Section 16 below). Examples are provided, and the find number (FN) indicates the corresponding label.
The inscriptions on the Carnuntum labels were investigated based on bibliographical references [,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,] as well as by consulting ancient written sources, reports about archaeological finds and publications about dye analyses of archaeological textiles (see Section 6 and Section 8).

3. Results and Discussion

Roman lead labels are important objects for epigraphic research, providing information about daily life in the Roman provinces. Despite being known and recognised from numerous Roman sites long before that, lead labels were the subject of systematic research for the first time in the 1950s and 1960s. The investigation into lead labels is a work in progress. Researchers are attempting to decipher the inscriptions of new excavated labels as well as those that still defy meaningful reading. They also sometimes offer new interpretations of previously researched labels. One example is a label from Trier. The term PIPIIR was originally interpreted as piper (pepper), from which it was concluded that the label was affixed to an object in which pepper was imported to Trier [] (pp. 36–37) [,] (pp. 123–129) [] (pp. 425, 433). Nowadays, experts tend to believe that the term means piperinus (pepper-coloured) and that it was once attached to a piece of fabric [] (p. 74) [] (pp. 289–293).
The more inscribed labels that are examined systematically, the greater the chance of deciphering inscriptions that have not yet been clearly understood. It would be interesting to find out if workshops in the Roman provinces used the same abbreviations.
Examining the terms and abbreviations on the Carnuntum lead labels drew on a wealth of experience. The palaeographic notes in the monograph on the tesserae from Siscia offer a comprehensive overview of the abbreviations appearing on the labels and their respective meanings [] (pp. 52–90). It is also an advantage, that the inscriptions always follow a specific sequence. First comes the name of a person, presumably a client, followed by the textile, usually a garment, the service, the colour and finally the price. Making matters worse, there is sometimes no entry in one of these categories. While only a few personal names are abbreviated, information on textiles, services and colours consists of just a few letters, or sometimes even a single letter. It is reasonable to assume that these abbreviations were clear and unambiguous to the people working with the textiles in Roman times. Therefore, an abbreviation should always have the same meaning. However, in some cases, research has not yet been able to determine the meaning of abbreviations. For example, an abbreviation that refers to a textile can have different meanings: PA can mean either palla (a cloak) or pannum (a cloth), and B can mean two different cloaks, a banata or birrus. There are even more abbreviations that have multiple meanings (see Section 5 and Section 7). However, different abbreviations were also used for the same term, which presumably did not cause any confusion in the workflow. For sulfure suffire (fumigate with sulphur), the abbreviations SULFUR, SULFU, SUL, SU and possibly also the letter S appear. It is also possible for an abbreviation to be interpreted as a colour adjective or dyeing process, or as another service. Various abbreviations were used for purple shades or for dyeing in purple shades, such as PURP, PUR and PU, as well as the letter P. Alternatively, PUR, PU and P could also mean purgare (to clean).
Despite the many uncertainties, an attempt was made to systematically record and graphically represent the terms (see Section 6 and Section 7). Abbreviations consisting of only one letter can be open to too much interpretation. For this reason, they have not been included in the graphs. However, even those consisting of multiple letters can refer to different terms. In the case of terms relating to colours and dyeing, some belonged to different colour categories. As the aim was to assign each term to a single category, the following solution was implemented. These abbreviations were assigned to the most likely meaning and counted in only one colour category. The other meanings are mentioned in Section 7. The results and discussions are continued in the following sections.

4. Clients and Prices

Personal names are present on at least 142 lead tags. They usually mention one person, but sometimes two or even three, who are considered to be clients. On two labels, the word fullo is written after the names Euchilus (FN438-2011-48) and Rest(it)utus (FN532-2011-02). This could mean that the service should be carried out by the fullo, the fuller, in the workshop. It is also possible that this individual’s profession is simply a descriptive detail used to distinguish them from other clients with the same name. This could be true for Rest(it)utus, a name that is very common in Pannonia. Conversely, it is unclear why the profession of Euchilus should have been emphasised to avoid potential confusion. This name appears to have been used very rarely. It seems to be a Hapax legomenon.
The gender and origin of the names can be deduced from personal names. Customers are categorised into four groups based on their individual names []: 45 people are Roman citizens, 38 men and 7 women. They usually have a nomen gentile (family or clan name) and a cognomen (third name), but they occasionally appear bearing a praenomen (first name) and a nomen gentile, and only seldom bearing tria nomina, i.e., all three names. A total of 49 people, including 29 men and 20 women, belong to the so-called peregrini. These are free people but without Roman citizenship. Their name (idiom) is followed by a patronym. A total of 48 individuals, 35 men and 13 women, have only a single name. It is unclear whether they were peregrini, Roman citizens or slaves. 56 names have been partially preserved, giving hardly any information about their gender, status or origin. This article mentions names of the Roman citizens Albanius Marcus, Ulpius Bato, Valerius Porilus and Iustia Saturnina, names of the peregrini Adnuo? Maturi, Fortis Terti(i), Iulius Capitonis und Tismmo Anionis, names of the peregrinae Florentina Campestris, Proba Secundini, Ureluna Valentis and Verrucila Magiri and the single name Mirio.
The prices on the Carnuntum labels are given in Roman currency of the time, based on the denarius: 1 denarius is divided in 4 sestertii and 1 sestertius corresponds to 2 dupondii. To get an idea of the cost of the services, the prices on the Carnuntum tags are compared with those from Siscia []. Most prices are relatively low, suggesting that they cover common services like cleaning, mending and dyeing. Higher prices likely correspond to more expensive services, i.e., more expensive dyes. While prices of more than 7 denarii are rare in Siscia, they seem to be more common in Carnuntum. The labels from Siscia belong to an earlier period (most of them being dated to the 1st and early 2nd century CE), while the find context of the Carnuntum labels would date them to the beginning of the second half of 2nd century CE. Therefore, it can be presumed that the costs of such services in Pannonia Superior increased between the late 1st and the mid-2nd centuries CE. [].

8. Dying Techniques, Dyes and Colours

Findings of Roman textiles in Carnuntum do exist [,]. However, they are too degraded to allow a successful dye analysis to be carried out. Therefore, the knowledge of the colourants used in this period is based on ancient written sources and modern research on natural colourants [,,]. Particular attention was paid to the analysis of dyes in archaeological textiles from Central European sites from the same or an earlier period [] [] [] (pp. 148–149) []. Additional knowledge is based on the dye analyses of late antique textiles from Egypt and the Mediterranean region [] (pp. 37–39). Other important sources include archaeobotanical finds of weld (Section 9) and woad (Section 12), and the archaeological finds of marine snails used for producing molluscan purple (Section 13).
Written sources as well as the dye analysis of archaeological textiles shows that dyeing techniques were highly developed long before Roman times. The oldest preserved dyeing recipes for wool are found on a 6th century BCE Late Babylonian cuneiform clay tablet probably from Sippar, a city on the east bank of the river Euphrates in modern Iraq [,,,]. It is housed at the British Museum in London (Inv.-no. BM 62788; BM 82978). This clay tablet mentions vat dyeing, alum as a mordant, mordant dyeing for red with three different madder types, mordant dyeing for yellow, and double dyeing for green and purple.
The following ancient writings were used as sources when researching the inscriptions of the Carnuntum lead labels: The seventh book of De architectura, a ten-volume treatise on architecture by Marcus Vitruvius Pollio (about 80/70–after about 15 BCE) is focused on pigments and refers to molluscan purple, woad, and indigo (Vitr. De arch. 7.13–14) []. In 77 CE, Pliny the Elder published the encyclopaedia Naturalis Historia in 37 books, in which he describes dyeing materials and processes from Europe, Egypt and the Near East [,,,,,,]. The five-volume encyclopaedia De Materia Medica, written by the Greek physician, pharmacologist and botanist Pedanius Dioscorides (about 40–about 90 CE) reflects the pharmacological knowledge of antiquity [,,]. However, he also mentions that some medicinal plants can be used for dyeing [] (pp. 26–28). Pliny the Elder and Dioscorides are both important sources of information on dyeing materials and techniques. Section 8, Section 9, Section 10, Section 11, Section 12 and Section 13 provide detailed information on the references for alum, alkanet, madder, kermes, woad, indigo, molluscan purple, cotinus and vaccinium.
Although the Papyrus Graecus Holmiensis and the Papyrus Leidensis X were created later than the Carnuntum lead labels, they are good sources of information on dyeing. They were discovered in tombs, presumably near Thebes, and contain recipes for colouring metals, stones and minerals, imitating gold and silver and dyeing textiles. Dating from the 3rd and 4th centuries CE, some of these recipes may originate from an earlier period [,,,]. Of the 156 recipes in the Papyrus Graecus Holmiensis, 71 concern dyeing, including dyeing with woad, madder, and kermes. The Papyrus Leidensis X contains 99 recipes, eleven of which are for dyeing wool [] (pp. 29–35). The papyri mainly contain instructions for dyeing purple shades with vegetable dyes (Section 13) and to a lesser extent for creating shades of blue, red, yellow, brown and green.
Two written sources refer to Asian trade goods used in textile production. The Periplus Maris Erythraei (Periplus of the Red Sea) is a Graeco-Roman navigation handbook written in Greek in the mid-1st century CE, which provides information on ports along the coasts of the Red Sea, Northeast Africa, Arabia and Southwest India []. It mentions trade goods from India such as pepper, nard, lac dye, indigo, cotton and silk. The so-called Muziris Papyrus (SB XVIII 13167), written in Greek in the mid-2nd century CE is housed at the Papyrus Collection in Vienna []. It documents a contract with an Alexandrian merchant, who imported merchandise from Muziris on the Malabar coast in South India, and the goods traded included nard, pepper, ivory, precious stones and fabric.
Ancient and historic textile dyeing uses colourants, which include soluble dyes, soluble tannins and insoluble organic pigments as well as three dyeing techniques—direct, mordant and vat dyeing [,,,,,,]. The colour palette was created by applying these techniques and combining them in double dyeing (Table 4).
Table 4. Colours and ancient textile dyeing. Column 1 attempts to reproduce the approximate colour tone that can be achieved with the dyeing materials and dyeing processes. The table is based on the main sources on natural dyes and their analysis [,,,] and on publications about dyes in archaeological textiles [,,,].

8.1. Direct Dyes and Direct Dyeing

Tannins and some natural soluble dyes bind directly to fibres, creating various colour shades without a mordant or additive [] (pp. 25–26). The brown tones dyed with tannins are colourfast, while direct dyes provide non-colourfast shades. Yellow can be produced with the carotenoid dye crocetin from saffron (Crocus sativus L.), red with the chalcone dye carthamin from safflower (Carthamus tinctorius L.), and brown with the green parts of common walnut (Juglans regia L.), which contain tannins and the naphthoquinone dye juglone.
Orchil (fucus), which is prepared from lichens such as Roccella tinctoria DC., produces purple shades [,] (pp. 274–283, pp. 485–503). Pliny the elder mentions the purple colour obtained with orchil (Plin. NH 13.136, 26.103, 32.66) [,,]. However, it is thought that this material was primarily used for pre-dyeing molluscan purple [] (p. 244). This suggests that the poor colourfastness of this dyeing material was known in ancient times. Another plant, the dyer’s alkanet (Alkanna tinctoria (L.) Tausch, see Section 8.2), was also used to create purple tones. However, these colours were not permanent either. The Papyrus Graecus Holmiensis and the Papyrus Leidensis X both refer to orchil and alkanet in recipes for shades ranging from purple to red [] (pp. 29–34, 49–50, 83–85).

8.2. Mordant Dyes and Mordant Dyeing with Alum

Most natural dyes are mordant dyes. In principle, these dyes can be used without mordants, but this results in pale colours that are not permanent. Intense and durable colours can only be achieved by fixing the dyes to the fibres with mordants [] (pp. 25–27). These dyes include yellow flavonoid dyes as well as red anthraquinone dyes derived from scale insects (dye insects) and plants belonging to the Rubiaceae family.
Flavonoids are widespread in the plant kingdom. Therefore, it can be challenging to identify plant species based on dye analysis of yellow-dyed archaeological textiles. Since prehistoric times, weld (Reseda luteola L.) has been the most important dye plant for yellow in Europe [] (pp. 175–177). The green parts of the plant contain the yellow flavones luteolin and apigenin as main dyes. Both the dyer’s broom (Genista tinctoria L.) and the common sawwort (Serratula tinctoria L.) are also sources of luteolin and apigenin [] (pp. 214–231). The common marigold (Calendula officinalis L.) the field marigold (Calendula arvensis (Vaill.) L.) and the heartwood (young fustic) of the dyer’s sumac or European smoketree (Cotinus coggygria Scop.) provide yellow flavonols [,] (pp. 175–176, pp. 176–181) [].
Dye insects, belonging to the superfamily Coccoidea (scale insects) are sources of anthraquinones and were applied in ancient textile dyeing [,] (pp. 52–91, pp. 607–656) []. Kermes (Kermes vermilio Planchon, 1864) consists of adult females that were collected from the branches of kermes oaks (Quercus coccifera L.). The main dye identified in kermes-dyed textiles is kermesic acid. Armenian cochineal (Porphyrophora hamelii Brandt 1833) lives on the roots of grasses in the region of Mount Ararat and the Caucasus, and Polish cochineal (Porphyrophora polonica (Linnaeus, 1758)) is found on the roots of perennial knawel (Scleranthus perennis L.) and various other plants in north-eastern Europe. Both species are known as ‘root cochineal’ because they live on plant roots, and the dyeings produced with them are usually impossible to distinguish by dye analysis. The characteristic minor dyes present alongside with the main dye carminic acid are often no longer detectable in archaeological textiles. As long as the textiles are not too degraded, it is possible to identify the species of the dye insect that has been used worldwide for dyeing [] (pp. 66–72).
The rhizomes of Rubiaceae species contain various red anthraquinone dyes and have been worldwide used for dyeing since prehistoric and ancient times [,] (pp. 92–110, pp. 107–129). In ancient Europe, dyer’s madder (Rubia tinctorum L.) was the most important plant of this family. Textiles dyed with the rhizomes of this plant usually contain more alizarin than purpurin, or an equal amount of both dyes. However, there are numerous red-dyed textiles that contain purpurin as the main dye [] (pp. 148–153) The terms ‘madder type’ or ‘Rubiaceae species’ are used in cases where the species Rubia tinctorum L. cannot be clearly identified [,] (pp. 374–376, pp. 6–12). Current research aims to reveal the causes. Other species of the Rubiaceae family, such as dyer’s woodruff (Asperula tinctoria L.) and bedstraw species (Galium spp.) contain purpurin as the main dye. Could they have been used alone or mixed with madder? Other theories suggest that the composition of the dyes may be affected by the way the rhizomes are treated or by particular dyeing techniques [,] (pp. 109–110, pp. 79–81) [].
Red to purple and violet colours with low colourfastness are created by anthocyanins from fruits like the bilberry or European blueberry (Vaccinium myrtillus L.) [] (pp. 243–245) and maybe from leaves of the European smoketree (Cotinus coggygria Scop.) (see Section 13). Non-colourfast purple shades can also be obtained from the roots of dyer’s alkanet (Alkanna tinctoria (L.) Tausch), which contain the naphthoquinone dye alkannin [,] (pp. 44–47, pp. 60–63).
What can be said about the mordants available during Roman times? The use of club mosses, which accumulate aluminium salts in the cell sap [] (pp. 33–34), was probably limited to domestic dyeing. Tannins can be used as mordants, but they produce darker, less vivid shades because of their brown natural colour. The most important mordants are metal salts, whose polyvalent metal ions form strong bonds between dye and fibre molecules. Alum (KAl(SO4)2·12H2O) is a potassium aluminium sulphate. It has been the most commonly used mordant since ancient times. The Greek historian Herodotus (around 484–around 425 BCE), Pliny the Elder and Pedanius Dioscorides describe various kinds of alum, their deposits in the Mediterranean region and the good quality of Egyptian alum (Plin. NH 33.94, 35.183–190; Dsc. 5.106) [,,]. Alum has little effect on the colours but intensifies them. By contrast, colour changes are caused by iron and copper ions, whether they come from mordants (salts), metal vessels, or metal waste (see Table 4).

8.3. Vat Dyes and Vat Dyeing

Vat dyeing is a dyeing technique for insoluble organic pigments (vat dyes, indigoid dyes). Two techniques had to be developed. The first concerns the preparation of organic pigments from water-soluble precursors (chromogens) present in indigo plants and snails from the Muricidae family (molluscan purple), and the second technique is vat dyeing. By reduction in an alkaline solution, the water-insoluble pigments convert into water-soluble, greenish-yellow leuco forms. When the textile is immersed in the vat, the leuco-forms are absorbed by the fibres. After a while, the textile is taken out of the vat and exposed to the air. The contact with oxygen in the air causes oxidation and reconverts the greenish-yellow water-soluble leuco-forms into water-insoluble pigments, which adhere to the fibres [] (pp. 26–29).
Indigotin, a vat dye obtained from the leaves of indigo plants, is the only natural colourant for dyeing blue. The most important sources in Roman times were woad (Isatis tinctoria L.) in Europe and Indian indigo (Indigofera tinctoria L.) in India. It should be noted that dye analysis cannot determine whether woad, indigo, or another indigotin source was used to dye a textile [] (p. 257).
6,6’-dibromoindigotin, 6-monobromoindigotin, indigotin and related indigoids of molluscan purple are derived from hypobranchial glands of marine snails from the Mediterranean Sea, mainly from the banded dye-murex (Hexaplex trunculus Linnaeus, 1758) [,,] (pp. 553–586, pp. 56–65, p. 203). This species has been identified in archaeological textiles as the primary source of both indigotin-rich blue-purple and dibromoindigotin-rich red-purple [] (p. 87). The spiny dye-murex (Bolinus brandaris (Linnaeus, 1758) and the red-mouthed rock shell (Stramonita haemastoma (Linnaeus, 1767)) provide dibromoindigotin-rich red-purple and could be added to the Hexaplex trunculus pigment to create more reddish-purple tones [] (pp. 256, 288–300).

8.4. Double Dyeing and Shading of Colours by Copper- and Iron-Based Mordants

The range of textile colours could be expanded by dyeing in two or more different dye baths (double dyeing, top dyeing, over-dyeing, multiple dyeing process) [] (pp. 21–23). Orange shades were created using yellow and red mordant dyes. True greens were achieved by double dyeing, blue in a woad vat and yellow in a dye bath prepared with weld or another flavonoid-containing plant. In antiquity, it was common to produce purple nuances by dyeing blue in a woad vat and dyeing red with mordant dyes from a Rubiaceae species or a dye insect.
Shading of colours with mordants is also an old technique. Treating a textile with an iron or copper salt solution changes the colour. The yellow flavonoid dyes give brown shades with iron-containing mordants and olive-green tones with copper-containing mordants. Red anthraquinone dyes with iron-based mordants lead to brown, purple and violet hues. Dark brown to black colours can be achieved by combining tannins with iron-based mordants to create the so-called ‘iron-gall black’.
It is assumed that the colours mentioned on the Carnuntum tags were created using these dyeing methods, or a combination of them. Brown, yellow and red could be achieved by direct dyeing, blue and purple by vat dyeing and red and yellow by mordant dyeing based on alum-mordant. The range of textile colours could be expanded to include green, purple and black by double dyeing. The application of iron- and copper-based mordants resulted in shades of olive, purple and black (Table 4).

17. Conclusions

A cesspit excavated in 2011 at Petronell Castle in Austria was located in the former Roman civil town of Carnuntum, Pannonia Superior, and was dated to the mid-2nd century CE based on coin finds and ceramics. The cesspit served as a latrine, and the artefacts found in it provided valuable insights into the flora and fauna, the health, eating habits and the way of life of the inhabitants of ancient Carnuntum. A total of 179 inscribed lead tesserae were discovered, providing historical insights into the activities of an ancient workshop specialising in fulling and cleaning (fullonica), as well as dyeing and redyeing (officina infectoria and officina offectoria). The labels contain a rich terminology relating to textiles, garments, services, colours, client names and prices. The lead tags enable to reconstruct the workshop’s workflow and the exchange between client and contractor. The terms for services, clothing and colours expand the knowledge of the textile industry during the Roman imperial period. While the prices indicate the cost of the services provided at the workshop, the personal names offer a particularly interesting insight into the average population of Carnuntum in the mid-2nd century CE. They include people who may not have had the financial means to erect funerary stones or votive monuments, meaning they would otherwise have been invisible in the epigraphic record.
The terms related to colours and dyeing offer insight into the colourful clothing worn in the 2nd century Carnuntum. They also allow to draw conclusions about the materials and techniques used for dyeing. The frequently attested colour adjective caeruleus (blue) refers to different blue tones that could be produced by vat dyeing using woad (Isatis tinctoria L.), the locally grown dye plant. Perhaps the dyers were also familiar with the blue colour of indigo, even though they did not use the dyeing material from India for textiles. The numerous names pointing to yellow hues suggest that several plant materials were available for yellow mordant dyeing. The tesserae’s inscriptions seem to feature plants such as weld (Reseda luteola L.), marigold (Calendula spp.), smoke tree (Cotinus coggygria Scop.) and saffron (Crocus sativus L.). When it comes to green, viridis (green) is the most common umbrella term. Most of the green shades could only be achieved by double dyeing, combining dyeing in a woad vat for blue and the dyeing with yellow mordant dyes. On the other hand, olive green tones could be achieved using yellow mordant dyes and copper-based mordants.
The largest numerical group comprises the colours purpureus (purple), coccineus and cusculium (scarlet red) and ruber (red). The popularity of red and purple tones, as documented in written and art historical evidence, is likely also true for the province of Pannonia Superior. Red and scarlet tones were dyed with mordant dyes. It can be assumed that red shades were created with dyer’s madder (Rubia tinctorum L.) and scarlet shades with kermes (Kermes vermilio Planchon, 1864). The dyers in Carnuntum probably produced purple tones, primarily by combining dyeing blue in a woad vat with dyeing red using mordant dyes.
Brown, grey and black tones are rarely mentioned on the tesserae. This may be because these colours were readily available in undyed sheep’s wool, so that no elaborate dyeing process was required. White fibre materials, which were particularly suitable for dyeing, could be obtained in various ways. White sheep’s wool could be sorted from the fleece of piebald breeds or obtained from white sheep breeds. Last but not least, the wool and linen fibres, which originally had a rather beige or grey colour, could be bleached.
The Roman textiles excavated in Carnuntum have degraded so badly that it is impossible to analyse their dyes successfully. Therefore, the inscriptions on the lead tags are a particularly valuable source of information on the dyeing materials and techniques used at the time.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, R.H.-d.K. and B.P.; methodology, I.R.-L., B.P., R.H.-d.K. and I.B.; validation, R.H.-d.K., I.R.-L., B.P., I.B. and A.G.H.; formal analysis, I.R.-L., B.P., I.B., A.G.H. and R.H.-d.K.; investigation, I.R.-L., B.P., R.H.-d.K., I.B. and A.G.H.; resources, B.P.; data curation, I.R.-L., B.P., R.H.-d.K., I.B. and A.G.H.; writing—original draft preparation, R.H.-d.K.; writing—review and editing, A.G.H., I.R.-L., I.B. and B.P.; supervision, A.G.H.; project administration, B.P.; funding acquisition, B.P. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by the Jubiläumsfonds der Oesterreichischen Nationalbank (Anniversary Fund of the Oesterreichische Nationalbank, OeNB), project title: Handel, Wirtschaft, Kultur und Naturraum in der mittleren Kaiserzeit im Raum Carnuntum, funding number: 15007, project coordinator: Beatrix Petznek).

Data Availability Statement

The raw data presented in this study are available on request from the authors. A book will be published that will contain all the data resulting from this research: Petznek, B.; Heiss, A. G.; Schwab, R.; Hofmann-de Keijzer, R.; Radman-Livaja, I., Eds. Handel, Wirtschaft, Kultur und Naturraum in der mittleren Kaiserzeit im Raum Carnuntum. Interdisziplinäre Analysen der römischen Latrine mit Preisschildern in Carnuntum (Schloss Petronell). Archaeopress: Oxford, UK, 2026, manuscript to be submitted.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

References

  1. Egger, R. Epigraphische Nachlese, Bleietiketten aus dem rätischen Alpenvorland. In Jahreshefte des Österreichischen Archäologischen Institutes in Wien 1961–1963; Austrian Archaeological Institute: Vienna, Austria, 1963; Volume 46, pp. 190–191. [Google Scholar]
  2. Weber, E. Beschriftete Bleitesserae, eine bisher wenig beachtete Denkmälergruppe. In Proceedings of the VIIe Congrès International D’épigraphie Grecque et Latine, Constantza, 7th International Congress of Greek and Latin Epigraphy, Constanța, Romania, 9–15 September 1977; Editura Academiei: București, Romania; Société d’édition Les Belles Lettres: Paris, France; pp. 489–490. [Google Scholar]
  3. Römer-Martijnse, E. Beschriftete Bleietiketten der Römerzeit in Österreich. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria, 1993. [Google Scholar]
  4. Paci, G. Etichette plumbee iscritte. In Commentationes Humanarum Litterarum 104, Proceedings of the Colloquii Epigraphici Latini, Helsingiae, Finland, 3–6 September 1991; Suomen Tiedeseura: Helsinki, Finland, 1995; pp. 29–40. [Google Scholar]
  5. Pfahl, S.F. Instrumenta Latina et Graeca Inscripta des Limesgebietes von 200 v. Chr. bis 600 n. Chr.; Bernhard, A.V., Ed.; Greiner: Weinstadt, Germany, 2012; pp. 203–207. ISBN 978-3-86705-056-2. [Google Scholar]
  6. Radman-Livaja, I. Olovne tesere iz Siscije, Les plombs inscrits de Siscia. In Musei Archaeologici Zagrabiensis Catalogi et Monographiae 9; Archaeological Museum: Zagreb, Croatia, 2014; ISBN 978-953-6789-82-5. [Google Scholar]
  7. Murphy, E.A. Socially Embedded Work Practices and Production Organization in the Roman Mediterranean: Beyond Industry Lines. J. Mediterr. Archaeol. 2015, 28, 221–239. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  8. Graßl, H. Zur Textilterminologie auf römischen Bleitäfelchen: Probleme der Lesung und Interpretation. In Textile Terminologies from the Orient to the Mediterranean and Europe, 1000 BC to 1000 AD; Gaspa, S., Michel, C., Nosch, M.-L., Eds.; Zea Books: Lincoln, NE, USA, 2017; pp. 250–255. ISBN 978-1-60962-112-4. [Google Scholar]
  9. Hermann, F. Kleininschriften auf Römischen Bleietiketten als Quellengruppe. Master’s Thesis, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria, 2023. [Google Scholar]
  10. Frere, S.S.; Tomlin, R.S.O. The Roman Inscriptions of Britain, II: Instrumentum Domesticum (in Eight Fascicules) 1990–1995; Sutton Publishing Ltd.: Stroud, UK, 1995; Volume II. [Google Scholar]
  11. Roman Inscriptions of Britain, 2024. Available online: https://romaninscriptionsofbritain.org/ (accessed on 23 May 2025).
  12. Fabre, G.; Mayer, M.; Roda, I. Inscriptions Romaines de Catalogne III. Gérone; Boccard: Paris, France, 1991; p. 167. ISBN 84-7929-154-0. [Google Scholar]
  13. Pi, D.G.; de Llanza, I.R. Une etiqueta de plomo con fitónimos procedente de Mas Vell (Vallmoll, ager Tarraconensis). Espac. Tiempo Forma Ser. II Hist. Antig. 2012, 25, 121–129. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  14. Hidalgo, L.A.; Bustamante, M.; Bernal, D. Etiquetas comerciales de plomo para textiles en Augusta Emerita. In Purpureae Vestes V, Textiles, Basketry and Dyes in the Ancient Mediterranean World, Proceedings of the Vth International Symposium on Textiles and Dyes in the Ancient Mediterranean World, Montserrat, Spain, 19–22 March 2014; Ortiz, J., Alfaro, C., Turell, L., Martínez, M.J., Eds.; Universitat de València: Valencia, Spain, 2016; pp. 221–237. ISBN 978-84-370-9451-9. [Google Scholar]
  15. Hirschfeld, O.; Zangemeister, K.F.W.; von Domaszewski, A. Corpus Inscriptionum Latinum (CIL), Volume XIII, Inscriptiones Trium Galliarum et Germaniarum Latinae; Nabu Press: Charleston, SC, USA, 2013; ISBN 1295113465. [Google Scholar]
  16. Steyert, A. Nouvelle Histoire de Lyon et des Provinces de Lyonnais-Forez-Beaujolais, Franc-Lyonnais et Dombres; Bernoux et Cumin: Lyon, France, 1895; Volume 1, p. 295. [Google Scholar]
  17. Schwinden, L. Handel mit Pfeffer und anderen Gewürzen im römischen Trier. Funde Ausgrabungen Bez. Trier. (Aus Arb. Rheinischen Landesmus. Trier) 1983, 15, 20–26. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  18. Schwinden, L. Römerzeitliche Bleietiketten aus Trier, Zum Handel mit Pfeffer, Arznei und Kork. Trierer Zeitschrift 1985, 48, 121–137. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  19. Feugère, M. Une étiquette inscrite en plomb. In Les Fouilles de la Z.A.C. des Halles à Nîmes (Gard); Monteil, M., Ed.; Bulletin de l’École Antique de Nîmes: Nîmes, France, 1993; pp. 301–303. [Google Scholar]
  20. Schwinden, L. Zwei römische Bleietiketten mit Graffiti aus Bliesbruck. In Festschrift für Jean Schaub. Études Offertes à Jean Schaub, Blesa 1; Massing, J.M., Petit, J.-P., Eds.; Veröffentlichungen des Europäischen Kulturparks Bliesbruck-Reinheim; Publication du Parc Archeologique Europeen Bliesbruck-Reinheim: Metz, France, 1993; pp. 215–222. [Google Scholar]
  21. Schwinden, L. Asparagus—Römischer Spargel—Ein neues Bleietikett mit Graffiti aus Trier. Funde Ausgrabungen Bez. Trier. (Aus Arb. Rheinischen Landesmus. Trier.) 1994, 26, 25–32. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  22. Božič, D.; Feugère, M. Les instruments de l’écriture. Gallia 2004, 61, 21–41. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  23. Jacques, A.; Hoët-Cauwenberghe, C. Artisanat et commerce: Les étiquettes de plomb inscrites découvertes à Arras (Nemetacum). Rev. Etudes Anciennes 2010, 112, 295–317. [Google Scholar]
  24. Bats, M. Témoignages d’activités artisanales: Les étiquettes en plomb inscrites des fouilles de l’espace Mangin à Fréjus. In Fréjus Romaine, La Ville et Son Territoire, Agglomérations de Narbonnaise, des Alpes-Maritimes et de Cisalpine à Travers la Recherche Archéologique, Proceedings of the 8ème Colloque Historique de Fréjus, Fréjus, France, 8–10 October 2010; Pasqualini, M., Ed.; Publication de l’APDCA: Antibes, France, 2011; pp. 147–156. [Google Scholar]
  25. Schwinden, L. Vom Ganges an den Rhein. Warenetiketten und Bleiplomben im Fernhandel. In Warenwege—Warenflüsse. Handel, Logistik und Transport am Römischen Niederrhein; Eger, C., Ed.; Nünnerich-Asmus: Oppenheim, Germany, 2018; pp. 423–441. [Google Scholar]
  26. Graßl, H. Römische Bleietiketten aus Trier: Neue Lesungen und Interpretationen. Z. Papyrol. Epigr. 2021, 219, 289–298. [Google Scholar]
  27. Frei-Stolba, R. Bleietiketten von Oberwinterthur—Vitudurum. Annu. Rev. Swiss Archaeol. 1984, 7, 127–138. [Google Scholar]
  28. Frei-Stolba, R. Eine Paläographische Bemerkung zu den Bleietiketten aus Oberwinterthur-Vitudurum. Epigraphica 1985, 47, 65–70. [Google Scholar]
  29. Hampel, A.; Scholz, M. Reiter und ihre Pferdeknechte—Ein neues Bleietikett aus NIDA. In Hessen Archäologie 2012. Jahrbuch für Archäologie und Paläontologie in Hessen; Schallmayer, E., Ed.; hessenARCHÄOLOGIE des Landesamtes für Denkmalpflege Hessen in Kommission bei Theiss: Freiburg, Germany, 2013; pp. 118–121. [Google Scholar]
  30. Becker, T.; Scholz, M. Decken für die Truppe. Ein Bleietikett aus Groß-Gerau. In Hessen Archäologie 2015. Jahrbuch für Archäologie und Paläontologie in Hessen; Recker, U., Ed.; hessenARCHÄOLOGIE des Landesamtes für Denkmalpflege Hessen in Kommission bei Theiss: Freiburg, Germany, 2015; pp. 66–69. [Google Scholar]
  31. Henrich, P. Bleiplomben und Warenetiketten als Quellen zur Wirtschaftsgeschichte im vicus von Bonn. In Archäologie im Rheinland 2008 (2009); Amt für Bodendenkmalpflege im Rheinland, Landesverband Rheinland, Ed.; Verlag Theiss in Herder: Freiburg, Germany, 2009; pp. 101–103. [Google Scholar]
  32. Czysz, W. Eine frühkaiserzeitliche Handelsstation an der via Claudia Augusta im Forggensee bei Dietringen, Ldkr. Ostallgäu, Teil I. In Jahrbuch des Historischen Vereins Alt Füssen; Historischer Verein Alt Füssen: Füssen, Germany, 1996; pp. 5–24. [Google Scholar]
  33. Römer-Martijnse, E. Eine frühkaiserzeitliche Handelsstation an der Via Claudia Augusta im Forggensee bei Dietringen, Lkr. Ostallgäu, Teil II—Die beschrifteten Bleietiketten. Jahrbuch des Historischen Vereins Alt Füssen; Historischer Verein Alt Füssen: Füssen, Germany, 1997; pp. 5–48. [Google Scholar]
  34. Hartmann, B. Inschriften auf Metallgegenständen aus dem römischen Vicus Tasgetium (Eschenz TG). Annu. Rev. Swiss Archaeol. 2014, 97, 172–179. [Google Scholar]
  35. Solin, H. Tabelle plumbee di Concordia. Aquileia Nostra 1977, 48, 145–164. [Google Scholar]
  36. Weiss, P. Bleietiketten mit Warenangaben aus dem Umfeld von Rom. Tyche 1991, 6, 211–220. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  37. Bassi, C. Tre lamellae perforatae da Savazzona-Quistello (Mantova). Epigr. Riv. Ital. Epigr. 1996, 58, 207–216. [Google Scholar]
  38. Buonopane, A. La produzione tessile ad Altino: Le fonti epigrafiche. In Produzione, Merci e Commerci in Altino Preromana e Romana, Atti del Covegno, Venezia 2001, Proceedings of the Conference from Venezia, Venezia, Italy, 12–14 December 2001; Marrone, G.C., Tirelli, M., Eds.; Quasar: Roma, Italy, 2003; pp. 285–297. ISBN 88-7140-244-8. [Google Scholar]
  39. Bizzarini, L. Quattro laminette plumbee da Altino. Ann. Mus. Civ. Rovereto. Sez. Archeol. Stor. Sci. Nat. 2005, 21, 121–135. [Google Scholar]
  40. Buchi, E.; Buonopane, L. Le etichette plumbee rinvenute a Feltre: Aspetti onomastici, lessicali, economici e tecnici. In I territori della Via Claudia Augusta: Incontri di Archeologia/Leben an der Via Claudia Augusta: Archäologische Beiträge; Ciurletti, G., Pisu, N., Eds.; Tipolit; TEMI: Trento, Italy, 2005; pp. 43–51. [Google Scholar]
  41. Marrone, G.C.; Pettenò, E. Supellex ex plumbo. Laminae Concordienses. Le laminette commerciali da Iulia Concordia. Atti R. Ist. Veneto Sci. Lett. Arti 2010, 168, 43–110. [Google Scholar]
  42. Annibaletto, M.; Pettenò, E. Laminette plumbee da Iulia Concordia: Alcune riflessioni sui commerci e sulla lana. In La Lana Nella Cisalpina Romana—Economia e Società—Studi in Onore di Stefania Pesavento Mattioli, Atti del Convegno Internazionale, Padova-Verona, Italy, 18–20 Maggio 2011; Busane, M.S., Basso, P., Eds.; Collana Antenor Quaderni 27; Padova University Press: Padova, Italy, 2012; pp. 435–449. ISBN 978-8897385-30-1. [Google Scholar]
  43. Buonopane, A.; Cresci Marrone, G.; Tirelli, M. Etichette plumbee iscritte e commercio della lana ad Altinum (Italia, regio X). In Instrumenta Inscripta VIII. Plumbum Litteratum. Studia Epigraphica Giovanni Manella Oblata; Baratta, G., Ed.; Scienze e Lettere: Roma, Italy, 2021; pp. 89–102. [Google Scholar]
  44. Egger, R. Fünf Bleietiketten und eine Gussform. Die neuesten Magdalensbergfunde. Anz. Philol.-Hist. Kl. Osterr. Akad. Wiss. 1967, 104, 195–210. [Google Scholar]
  45. Weber, E. Beschriftete Bleitäfelchen. In Proceedings of the 1. Österreichischen Althistorikertreffen am Retzhof/Leibnitz, Retzhof/Leibnitz, Austria, 27–29 May 1983; Publikationen des Instituts für Alte Geschichte und Altertumskunde der Karl-Franzens-Universität Graz: Graz, Austria, 1983; Volume 3, pp. 58–62. [Google Scholar]
  46. Weber, E. Ein Bleietikett aus Immurium-Moosham. In Jahreshefte des Österreichischen Archäologischen Institutes in Wien 1968–1971; Austrian Archaeological Institute: Vienna, Austria, 1971; Volume 49, pp. 229–234. [Google Scholar]
  47. Weber, E. Das Bleitäfelchen mit einem Liebeszauber aus Mautern an der Donau. In Veröffentlichungen des Verbandes österreichischer Geschichtsvereine 25, Proceedings of 16. österreichischen Historikertag in Krems/Donau, Krems/Donau, Austria, 3–7 September 1984; Verband Österreichischer Geschichtsvereine: Vienna, Austria, 1985; pp. 62–65, 67–69. [Google Scholar]
  48. Römer- Martijnse, E. Römerzeitliche Bleietiketten aus Kalsdorf, Steiermark. In Proceedings of the 3. Österreichischen Archäologentages Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria, 3–5 April 1987; Österreichisches Archäologisches Institut: Vienna, Austria, 1989; pp. 171–174. [Google Scholar]
  49. Farka, C.; Kladnik, O.; Kladnik, S. KG Maria Saal. Fundberichte Osterr. 1989, 28, 212. [Google Scholar]
  50. Römer-Martijnse, E. Römerzeitliche Bleietiketten aus Kalsdorf, Steiermark. In Denkschriften der Philosophisch-Historischen Klasse 205, 1st ed.; Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften: Vienna, Austria, 1990; ISBN 783700115809. [Google Scholar]
  51. Alföldy, G. Die Personennamen auf den Bleietiketten von Kalsdorf (Steiermark) in Noricum (Kurzfassung). Specimina Nova 1991, VII/I, 115–120. [Google Scholar]
  52. Römer-Martijnse, E. Fullones ululamque cano, non arma virumque (CIL IV 9131). Specimina Nova 1991, VII/I, 111–114. [Google Scholar]
  53. Römer-Martijnse, E. Blei in der Antike. In Instrumenta Inscripta Latina, das Römische Leben im Spiegel der Kleininschriften; Hainzmann, M., Visy, Z., Eds.; Gradis: Pécs, Hungary, 1991; pp. 46–48/148–151. ISBN 9789636412821. [Google Scholar]
  54. Römer-Martijnse, E. Auf den Spuren des Textilgewerbes im römischen St. Pölten. In Landeshauptstadt St. Pölten—Archäologische Bausteine; Scherrer, P., Ed.; Sonderschrift, Österreichisches Archäologisches Institut: Vienna, Austria, 1991; pp. 92–93. ISBN 978-3900305116. [Google Scholar]
  55. Alföldy, G. Die Personennamen auf den Bleietiketten von Kalsdorf (Steiermark) in Noricum. In Sprachen und Schriften des Antiken Mittelmeerraums. Festschrift für Jürgen Untermann zum 65. Geburtstag; Heidermanns, F., Rix, H., Seebold, E., Eds.; Innsbrucker Beiträge zur Sprachwissenschaft: Innsbruck, Austria, 1993; Volume 78, pp. 1–32. ISBN 978-3851246438. [Google Scholar]
  56. Scherrer, P.; Kronberger, M.; Riegler, Ch.; Risy, R.; Jilek, S.; Zabehlicky, H. Katalogbeitrag I/14 Bleietiketten für Textilien Etikette B. In Florian 2004 Entflammt; Catalogue of the exhibition in Enns-Lorc-St.Florian; Dimt, H., Ed.; Denkmayr: Linz, Austria, 2004; p. 121. ISBN 3-85483-040-8. [Google Scholar]
  57. Horvat, J. Navport med Jadranom in Donavo, Nova Arheološka Raziskovanja na Vrhniki (Navport Between the Adriatic and the Danube, New Archaeological Research in Vrhnika), Catalogue to the Exhibition, 14 November–6 December 2006, Galerija Cankarjevega Doma; Inštitut za Arheologijo ZRC SAZU: Ljubljana, Slovania, 2006. [Google Scholar]
  58. Graßl, H. Eine littera Claudiana am Magdalensberg. Z. Pap. Epigr. 2005, 153, 241–242. [Google Scholar]
  59. Dolenz, H. Die Ausgrabungen im Tempelbezirk bei St. Michael am Zollfeld im Jahre 2005. Rudolfinum Jahrb. Landesmus. Kärnten 2005, 2007, 143–152. [Google Scholar]
  60. Lohner-Urban, U. Untersuchungen im römerzeitlichen Vicus von Kalsdorf bei Graz. Die Ergebnisse der Ausgrabungen auf der Parz. 421/1. Baubefunde und Kleinfunde. In Forschungen zur Geschichtlichen Landeskunde der Steiermark 50, Veröffentlichungen des Instituts für Archäologie der Karl-Franzens-Universität Graz 9; Phoibos Verlag: Vienna, Austria, 2009; ISBN 978-3-85161-018-5. [Google Scholar]
  61. Lovenjak, M. Four inscribed plates. In The Ljubljanica—A River and Its Past, Catalogue of the Exhibition in National Museum of Slovenia; Turk, P., Istenič, J., Knific, T., Nabergoj, T., Eds.; CIP—Kataložni Zapis o Publikaciji Narodna in Univerzitetna Knjižnica: Ljubljana, Slovenia, 2009; pp. 268–271. ISBN 978-961-6169-66-0. [Google Scholar]
  62. Lamm, S. Die römische Villa von Grünau. Funde und Befunde der Grabungssaisonen 1991, 1992, 2001 und 2002. Ph.D. Thesis, Karl-Franzens-Universität Graz, Graz, Austria, 2011. [Google Scholar]
  63. Wedenig, R. Kleininschriften auf Keramik- und Bleifunden vom Makartplatz. In Salzburg, Makartplatz 6, Römisches Gewerbe—Stadtpalais—Bankhaus Spängler; Höglinger, P., Ed.; Fundberichte aus Österreich, Materialhefte, Reihe A, Sonderheft 20; Verlag Ferdinand Berger & Söhne GmbH: Horn, Austria, 2012; pp. 50–53. [Google Scholar]
  64. Wedenig, R. Kleininschriften zum Wirtschaftsleben im nördlichen Noricum. In Stadt, Land, Fluss/Weg: Aspekte zur Römischen Wirtschaft im Nördlichen Noricum, Workshop Salzburg, 19–20 November 2010; Lang, F., Traxler, S., Wohlmayr, W., Eds.; Archaeo Plus—Schriften zur Archäologie und Archäometrie der Paris Lodron-Universität Salzburg 3: Salzburg, Austria, 2012; pp. 127–134. ISBN 978-3-9502897-2-5. Available online: https://eplus.uni-salzburg.at/obvusboa/content/titleinfo/5972010 (accessed on 27 June 2025).
  65. Wedenig, R. Wirtschaftsnotizen auf Instrumentum domesticum aus Noricum. Sylloge Epigr. Barc. 2012, 10, 101–108. [Google Scholar]
  66. Wedenig, R. Ein Bleietikett mit Farbbezeichnung vom Residenzplatz in Salzburg-Iuvavum. In Kultur(en), Formen des Alltäglichen in der Antike, Festschrift für Ingomar Weiler zum 75. Geburtstag; Mauritsch, P., Ulf, C., Eds.; Nummi et Literae: Grazer Universitätsverlag—Leykam—Karl-Franzens-Universität Graz: Graz, Austria, 2013; pp. 237–250. ISBN 978-3701102754. [Google Scholar]
  67. Wedenig, R. Zwei beschriftete Bleietiketten aus Teurnia mit Angaben zum Textilgewerbe. In Ad amussim. Festschrift zum 65. Geburtstag von Franz Glaser; Dörfler, I., Gleirscher, P., Ladstätter, S., Pucker, I., Eds.; Verlag des Landesmuseums für Kärnten in Zusammenarbeit mit dem Österreichischen Archäologischen Institut an der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften: Klagenfurt, Austria, 2017; pp. 105–120. ISBN 3900575665/9783900575663. [Google Scholar]
  68. Radman-Livaja, I. Two Lead Tags from Štrbinci (Certissia?). Arheol. Rad. Raspr. 2013, 17, 165–180. [Google Scholar]
  69. Bobovec, A. Rimski Kompleks Ciglenice u Osekovu—Otkrivene Tajne Zlatnog doba Moslavine/Roman Complex Ciglenice in Osekovo—Revealed Secret of Golden Age of Moslavina; Catalogue of the Exhibition, Museum of Moslavina Kutina: Kutina, Croatia, 2008; p. 48. ISBN 978-953-7135-22-5. [Google Scholar]
  70. Weber, E. Ein beschriftetes Bleitäfelchen. In Die Kleinfunde des Legionslagers von Carnuntum mit Ausnahme der Gefässkeramik (Grabungen 1969–1974); Grünewald, M., Ed.; Schriftenreihe: Der Römische Limes in Österreich 31; Österreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften: Vienna, Austria, 1981; pp. 29–31. [Google Scholar]
  71. Römer-Martijnse, E. Ein beschriftetes Bleitäfelchen—Zeugnis handwerklicher Tätigkeit in Carnuntum? In Carnuntum Jahrbuch 1987; Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften: Wien, Austria, 1988; pp. 119–122. ISBN 978-3900464899. [Google Scholar]
  72. Römer-Martijnse, E. Carnuntum, das Erbe Roms an der Donau; Catalogue of the Exhibition at the Museum Carnuntinum: Bad Deutsch Altenburg, Austria, 1992; pp. 357–358. [Google Scholar]
  73. Lovenjak, M. Roman lead tablet from Ribnica with an inscription in cursive writing. Instrumentum 2005, 21, 42–43. [Google Scholar]
  74. Wedenig, R. mit einem Beitrag von Kronberger, M. Ein Bleietikett mit Zenturiengraffito von der Freyung in Wien 1. Fundort Wien Berichte Archäologie 2009, 12, 104–112. [Google Scholar]
  75. Lamm, S. Das Fundmaterial der römischen Siedlungsstelle in St. Martin an der Raab, Burgenland. Fundberichte Osterr. 2006, 45, 411. [Google Scholar]
  76. Radman-Livaja, I. Les Plombs Inscrits de Siscia. Ph.D. Thesis, École Pratique des Hautes Etudes, Paris, France, 2010. [Google Scholar]
  77. Pásztókai-Szeőke, J.; Radman-Livaja, I. Textilműhely az Iseum területén. In A Savariai Isis Szentély; Sosztarits, O., Balázs, P., Csapláros, A., Eds.; Sistrum, Seria A. No. 1.; B.K.L. Kiadó (Koltai János): Szombathely, Hungary, 2013; pp. 255–268. [Google Scholar]
  78. Graßl (Grassl), H. Die Rolle von Nauportus (Vrhnika) im Lichte neuer Textfunde. Arheol. Vestn. 2017, 68, 459–469. [Google Scholar]
  79. Graßl, H. Ein Bleitäfelchen aus Pannonien. Neulesung und Interpretation. In Classica et Provincialia, Proceedings of the Symposium to mark the 100th Anniversary of Erna Diez’s birth, Institut für Archäologie der Universität Graz, Graz, Austria, 8–9 April 2013; Koiner, G., Schwarz, G., Eds.; Forschungen zur geschichtlichen Landeskunde der Steiermark 67; Uni-Press Graz Verlag GmbH: Graz, Austria, 2015; pp. 23–25. [Google Scholar]
  80. Petznek, B.; Heiss, A. G.; Schwab, R.; Hofmann-de Keijzer, R.; Radman-Livaja, I. (Eds.) Handel, Wirtschaft, Kultur und Naturraum in der Mittleren Kaiserzeit im Raum Carnuntum. Interdisziplinäre Analysen der Römischen Latrine mit Preisschildern in Carnuntum (Schloss Petronell); Archaeopress: Oxford, UK, 2026; manuscript to be submitted. [Google Scholar]
  81. Petznek, B. A Roman cesspit from the mid-2nd century with lead price tags in the civil town of Carnuntum (Schloss Petronell/Austria). In Latrina, Roman Toilets in the Northwestern Provinces of the Roman Empire; Hoss, S., Ed.; Roman Archaeology 31 Archaeopress: Oxford, UK, 2018; pp. 119–126. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  82. Gostenčnik, K. Textilproduktion in der Austria Romana. In Römische Textilien in Noricum und Westpannonien im Kontext der Archäologischen Gewebefunde 2000 v. Chr.–500 n. Chr. in Österreich, Austria Antiqua 5; Grömer, K., Ed.; with contributions of Paetz gen. Schieck, A., Hölbling-Steigberger, E., Gostenčnik, K.; Uni-Press Graz Verlag GmbH: Graz, Austria, 2014; pp. 57–109. [Google Scholar]
  83. Radman-Livaja, I. Prices and Costs in the Textile Industry in the Light of the Lead Tags from Siscia. In Trade, Commerce, and the State in the Roman World; Oxford Studies on the Roman, Economy; Wilson, A., Bowman, A., Eds.; Oxford University Press: Oxford, UK, 2018; pp. 397–426. ISBN 978-0-19-879066-2. [Google Scholar]
  84. Flohr, M. The World of the Fullo. Work, Economy, and Society in Roman Italy; Oxford Studies on the Roman, Economy, Bowman, A., Wilson, A., Eds.; University Press: Oxford, UK, 2013; ISBN 978-0-19-965935-7. [Google Scholar]
  85. Rackham, H. Pliny, Natural History with an English Translation in Ten Volumes by H. Rackham, M.A.; Loeb Classical Library 394; Harvard University Press: Cambridge, MA, USA; William Heinemann Ltd.: London, UK, 1961; Volume 9 (Books 33–35). [Google Scholar]
  86. Rösel-Mautendorfer, H. Nähtechnik und Design/Sewing techniques and design. In Textilien aus Hallstatt. Gewebte Kultur aus dem Bronze- und Eisenzeitlichen Salzbergwerk/Woven Culture from Bronze and Iron Age Salt Mines; Grömer, K., Kern, A., Reschreiter, H., Rösel-Mautendorfer, H., Eds.; Archaeolingua 29: Budapest, Hungary, 2013; pp. 99–117. ISBN 978-963-9911-46-8. [Google Scholar]
  87. Casson, L. The Periplus Maris Erythraei, Text with Introduction, Translation and Commentary; Princeton University Press: Princeton, NJ, USA, 1989; ISBN 0-691-04060-5. [Google Scholar]
  88. Morelli, F. Dal Mar Rosso ad Alessandria. Il verso (ma anche il recto) del ‘papiro di Muziris’ (SB XVIII 13167). Tyche 2011, 26, 199–233. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  89. Rackham, H. Pliny, Natural History with an English Translation in Ten Volumes by H. Rackham, M.A.; Loeb Classical Library 370; William Heinemann Ltd.: London, UK; Harvard University Press: Cambridge, MA, USA, 1960; Volume 4 (Books 12–16). [Google Scholar]
  90. Osbaldeston, T.A.; Wood, R.P.A. (Eds.) Dioscorides, de Materia Medica. Being an Herbal with Many Other Medicinal Materials, Written in Greek in the First Century of the Common Era, a New Indexed Version in Modern English; Ibidis Press cc: Johannesburg, South Africa, 2000. [Google Scholar]
  91. Jones, W.H.S. Pliny, Natural History with an English Translation in Ten Volumes by W. H. S. Jones, Litt.D., F.BA.; Loeb Classical Library 392; Harvard University Press: Cambridge, MA, USA; William Heinemann Ltd.: London, UK, 1951; Volume 6 (Books 20–23). [Google Scholar]
  92. Guillaud, J.-A. Le nom de plante “Saliunca”. Rev. Etudes Anciennes 1909, 11, 246–252, 364–365. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  93. Guillaud, J.-A. La “Saliunca” dans Pline le naturaliste et dans Marcel de Bordeaux. Rev. Etudes Anciennes 1910, 12, 183–185. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  94. Gentner, G. Einiges über den Speik. In Jahrbuch des Vereins zum Schutze der Alpenpflanzen; Verlag Dr. F. P. Datterer & Cie: Freising-München, Deutschland, 1932; Volume 4, pp. 63–75. [Google Scholar]
  95. Genaust, H. Etymologisches Wörterbuch der Botanischen Pflanzennamen, 3rd ed.; Birkhäuser Verlag: Basel, Switzerland; Boston, MA, USA; Berlin, Germany, 1996; ISBN 3-7643-2390-6. [Google Scholar]
  96. Hofmann-de Keijzer, R.; Petznek, B.; Radman-Livaja, I.; Bogensperger, I.; Heiss, A.G. Coloured textiles from Upper Pannonia in Roman times. In Colours Revealed—Polychrome Monuments in the Roman Provinces—Detection, Interpretation, Visualisation, Proceedings of the Heritage Science Austria-Conference, Kulturfabrik Hainburg, Hainburg an der Donau, Austria, 20–21 March 2024; Kremer, G., Linke, R., Pollhammer, E., Plattner, G., Eds.; ÖAI Landessammlungen Niederösterreich, Sonderschriften des Österreichischen Archäologischen Instituts, No. 66; Holzhausen: Vienna, Austria, 2026; (accepted). [Google Scholar]
  97. Grömer, K.; Paetz gen. Schieck, A.; Mitschke, S. Römische Textilfunde aus Carnuntum: Ihre Erforschung und ihr Kontext im Textilschaffen am Donaulimes Carnuntum Jahrbuch 2012; Verlag der Österreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften: Wien, Austria, 2012; pp. 153–166. [Google Scholar]
  98. Morgado-Roncal, L.; Grömer, K. Textiles attached to Roman coins: Case studies and interpretations. Archaeol. Text. Rev. 2023, 65, 64–77. [Google Scholar]
  99. Schweppe, H. Handbuch der Naturfarbstoffe; Ecomed: Landsberg/Lech, Germany, 1993; ISBN 3-609-65130-X. [Google Scholar]
  100. Hofenk de Graaff, J. The Colourful Past—Origin, Chemistry and Identification of Natural Dyestuffs; with Contributions of Roelofs, G.T. and Van Bommel, M.R.; Abegg-Stiftung: Riggisberg, Switzerland; ISBN 3-905014-25-4. Archetype Publications Ltd.: London, UK, ISBN 1-873132-13-1.
  101. Cardon, D. Natural Dyes. Sources, Tradition, Technology and Science; Archetype Publications Ltd.: London, UK, 2007; ISBN-10 1-904982-00-X, ISBN-13 978-1-904982-00-5. [Google Scholar]
  102. Hofmann-de Keijzer, R.; Van Bommel, M.R.; Joosten, I.; Hartl, A.; Proaño Gaibor, A.N.; Heiss, A.G.; Kralofsky, R.; Erlach, R.; De Groot, S. Die Farben und Färbetechniken der prähistorischen Textilien aus dem Salzbergbau Hallstatt/The colours and dyeing techniques of prehistoric textiles from the salt mines of Hallstatt. In Textilien aus Hallstatt. Gewebte Kultur aus dem Bronze- und Eisenzeitlichen Salzbergwerk/Woven Culture from Bronze and Iron Age Salt Mines; Grömer, K., Kern, A., Reschreiter, H., Rösel-Mautendorfer, H., Eds.; Archaeolingua 29: Budapest, Hungary, 2013; pp. 135–162. ISBN 978-963-9911-46-8. [Google Scholar]
  103. Hofmann-de Keijzer, R. Dyeing. In The Art of Prehistoric Textile Making. The Development of Craft Tradition and Clothing in Central Europe; Grömer, K., with contributions of Hofmann-de Keijzer, R., Rösel-Mautendorfer, H.; Veröffentlichungen der Prähistorischen Abteilung (VPA) 5, Natural History Museum Vienna: Vienna, Austria, 2016; pp. 140–169. [Google Scholar]
  104. Hofmann-de Keijzer, R.; Heiss, A.G. La teinture à la Préhistoire: Matériaux, techniques et analyses. In Archéologie du textile en Europe à l’ âge du Bronze et au premier âge du Fer, Proceedings of la journée d’étude de 3ème journeé thématique de l’APRAB, Musée d’Archéologie Nationale, Saint-Germain-en-Laye, France, 6 March 2015; Lorin, Y., Peake, R., Eds.; Bulletin de l’APRAB Supplément 5: Saint-Germain-en-Laye, France, 2019; pp. 36–62. [Google Scholar]
  105. Hofmann-de Keijzer, R.; Van Bommel, M.R.; Joosten, I.; Bogensperger, I. Late Antique Textiles from the Papyrus Collection of the Austrian National Library—Scientific Investigation of Fibres, Dyes and Dyeing Techniques; MPER XXXIV; Walter de Gruyter GmbH: Berlin, Germany; Boston, MA, USA, 2024; Volume 2, ISBN 978-3-11-077637-9. [Google Scholar]
  106. Leichty, E.V. A collection of Recipes for Dyeing. In Studies in Honor of Tom B. Jones; Powel, M.A., Sack, R. H., Eds.; Alter Orient und Altes Testament 203; Kevelaer: Neukirchen-Vluyn, Germany, 1979; pp. 15–20. [Google Scholar]
  107. Finkel, I.L.; Granger-Taylor, H.; Cardon, D. A Clay Tablet from Ancient Babylonia with Recipes for Dyeing Wool. In Teintures Précieuses de la Méditerranée: Pourpre, Kermès, Pastel [exposition 1999–2000], Tintes Preciosos del Mediterraneo: Purpura, Quermes, Pastel [Exposicion 1999–2000]; Cardon, D., Ed.; Musée des Beaux-Arts de Carcassonne: Carcassonne, France, 1999; pp. 64–65. [Google Scholar]
  108. Reifarth, N.; Völling, E. Spuren aus dem Reich der Farben. Antike Welt 2013, 44, 33–39. Available online: https://katalog.slub-dresden.de/id/0-129472050 (accessed on 1 September 2017).
  109. Thavapalan, S. The meaning of Color in Ancient Mesopotamia. In Culture and History of the Ancient Near East 104; Koninklijke Brill NV: Leiden, The Netherlands, 2020. [Google Scholar]
  110. Granger, F., Translator; Vitruvius on Architecture; In Two Volumes; The Loeb Classical Library 280; Harvard University Press: Cambridge, MA, USA, 1970; reprint. [Google Scholar]
  111. Rackham, H. Pliny, Natural History with an English translation in ten volumes by H. Rackham, M.A.; Loeb Classical Library 353; William Heinemann Ltd.: London, UK; Harvard University Press: Cambridge, MA, USA, 1940; Volume 3 (Books 8–11). [Google Scholar]
  112. Rackham, H. Pliny, Natural History with an English translation in ten volumes by H. Rackham, M.A.; Loeb Classical Library 371; Harvard University Press: Cambridge, MA, USA; William Heinemann Ltd.: London, UK, 1961; Volume 5 (Books 17–19). [Google Scholar]
  113. Jones, W.H.S. Pliny, Natural History with an English translation in ten volumes by W. H. S. Jones, Litt.D., F.BA; Loeb Classical Library 393; Harvard University Press: Cambridge, MA, USA; William Heinemann Ltd.: London, UK, 1966; Volume 7 (Books 24–27). [Google Scholar]
  114. Jones, W.H.S. Pliny, Natural History with an English translation in ten volumes by W. H. S. Jones, Litt.D., F.BA; Loeb Classical Library 418; Harvard University Press: Cambridge, MA, USA; William Heinemann Ltd.: London, UK, 1963; Volume 8 (Books 28–32). [Google Scholar]
  115. Berendes, J., Translator; Dioskurides: De Materia Medica; Translation 1902, Vögtli, A. 1998. Available online: https://www.pharmawiki.ch/wiki/index.php?wiki=Dioskurides (accessed on 24 August 2021).
  116. Mazal, O. (Ed.) Der Wiener Dioskurides: Codex medicus Graecus 1 der Österreichischen Nationalbibliothek; Kommentar von Otto Mazal; two volumes, 1998–1999; Glanzlichter der Buchkunst 8. Akademische Druck- u. Vlgs.: Graz, Austria, 1999. [Google Scholar]
  117. Leemans, C. (Ed.) Papyri Graeci Musei Antiquarii Publici Lugduni-Batavi; E. J. Brill: Leiden, The Netherlands, 1885; Volume 2. [Google Scholar]
  118. Lagercrantz, O. Papyrus Graecus Holmiensis (P. Holm.). Recepte für Silber, Steine und Purpur; Lagercrantz, O., Ed.; published with the support of Vilhelm Ekmans Universitetsfond; A.-B. Akademiska Bokhandeln: Uppsala, Sweden; Otto Harrassowitz: Leipzig, Germany, 1913. [Google Scholar]
  119. Halleux, R. Papyrus de Leyde, Papyrus de Stockholm, Fragments de Recettes; Texte établi et traduit par Halleux, R., Les alchimistes grecs I; Les Belles Lettres: Paris, France, 1981. [Google Scholar]
  120. Jensen, W.B. (Ed.) The Leyden and Stockholm Papyri: Greco-Egyptian Chemical Documents from the Early 4th Century AD; An English Translation with Brief Notes by Earle Radcliffe Caley. Edited, with a New General Introduction, A Note on Technique, and a Material Index by William B. Jensen; Oesper Collection in the History of Chemistry; University of Cincinnati: Cincinnati, OH, USA, 2008. [Google Scholar]
  121. Kirby, J.; Van Bommel, M.R.; Verhecken, A. Natural Colourants for Dyeing and Lake Pigments. Practical Recipes and Their Historical Sources; Archetype Publications Ltd.: London, UK, 2014; ISBN 978-1-909492-15-8. [Google Scholar]
  122. Blümner, H. Technologie und Terminologie der Gewerbe und Künste bei Griechen und Römern, 2nd ed.; Verlag von, B.G., Ed.; Teubner: Leipzig/Berlin, Deutschland, 1912; Volume 1. [Google Scholar]
  123. Fiorentino, M.; Gravina, C.; Piccolella, S.; Pecoraro, M.T.; Formato, M.; Stinca, A.; Pacifico, S.; Esposito, A. Calendula arvensis (Vaill.) L.: A Systematic Plant Analysis of the Polar Extracts from Its Organs by UHPLC-HRMS. Foods 2022, 11, 247. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  124. Wouters, J. Dye Analysis: A Generator of Knowledge Beyond Science Alone. In Turkmen carpets: A new Perspective: An Interdisciplinary Study Based on Radiocarbon Dating, Dye, Mordant, and Technical Analysis, as Well as Historical and Art Historical Sources; Rageth, J., Ed.; in collaboration with Sienknecht, H.C., with contributions by Bonani, G., Wouters, J., Vanden Berghe, I., English translation by DeWitt Mallary; Jürg Rageth and Freunde des Orientteppichs: Basel, Switzerland, 2016; Volume 1, pp. 295–301. Available online: https://www.turkmencarpets.ch (accessed on 23 August 2025).
  125. Cardon, D.; Wouters, J.; Vanden Berghe, I.; Richard, G.; Breniaux, R. Dye analyses of selected textiles from Maximianon, Krokodikô and Didymoi (Egypt). In Purpureae Vestes I, Textiles y Tintes del Mediterráneo en Época Romana, Proceedings of the I Symposium International Sobre Textiles y Tintes del Mediterràneo en Època Romana, Ibiza, Spain, 8–10 November 2002; Alfaro, C., Wild, J.-P., Costa, B., Eds.; Universidad de Valencia (PUV): Valencia, Spain, 2004; pp. 145–154. [Google Scholar]
  126. Wouters, J.; VandenBerghe, I.; Richard, G.; Breniaux, R.; Cardon, D. Dye Analysis of Selected Textiles from the Roman Sites in the Eastern Desert of Egypt: A Hypothesis on the Dyeing Technology in Roman and Coptic Egypt. In Dyes in History and Archaeology 21 (DHA21), Proceedings of the DHA21-Conference, Avignon and Lauris, France, 10–12 October 2002; Kirby, J., Ed.; with the assistance of Cooksey, C., Cardon, D., Van Bommel, M., Quye, A., Atkinson, R.; Archetype Publications Ltd.: London, UK, 2008; pp. 1–16. ISBN 978-1-904982-07-4. [Google Scholar]
  127. Rösel-Mautendorfer, H.; Bogensperger, I.; Proaño Gaibor, A.N.; Hofmann-de Keijzer, R.; Van Bommel, M.R. Dyeing Experiments with Dyer‘s Madder (Rubia tinctorum L.). In Experimentelle Archäologie in Europa; Jahrbuch 2022, Heft 21; European Association for the advancement of archaeology by experiment e.V. in cooperation with the Pfahlbaumuseum Unteruhldingen; Beltz Bad Langensalza GmbH: Bad Langensalza, Germany, 2022; pp. 185–198. ISBN 978-3-944255-20-0. [Google Scholar]
  128. Bogensperger, I. Alum in Ancient Egypt: The written evidence. In Excavating, analysing, reconstructing. Textiles of the first millennium AD from Egypt and neighbouring countries, Proceedings of the 9th Conference of the Research Group Textiles from the Nile Valley, Antwerp, Belgium, 27–29 November 2015; De Moor, A., Fluck, C., Linscheid, P., Eds.; Lannoo: Tielt, Belgium, 2017; pp. 254–263. ISBN 978-94-014-4399-9. [Google Scholar]
  129. Cardon, D.; Nowik, W.; Granger-Taylor, H.; Marcinowska, R.; Kusyk, K.; Trojanowicz, M. Who could wear true purple in Roman Egypt? Technical and social considerations on some new identifications of Purple from marine Mollusca in archaeological textiles. In Purpureae Vestes III. Textiles y Tintes en la Ciudad Antigua/Tissus et Teintures dans la Cité Antique Tesuti e Tenture a la Città Antica, Proceedings of the III Symposium Internacional sobre Textiles y Tintes del Mediterráneo en el mundo antiguo, Naples, Italy, 13–15 November 2008; Alfaro Giner, C., Brun, J.-P., Borgard, P., Pierobon Benoit, R., Eds.; Universidad de Valencia (PUV): Valencia, Spain; Centre Jean Bérard (CNRS-EFR): Naples, Italy, 2011; pp. 197–214. [Google Scholar]
  130. Koren, Z.C. Dyeing with Sea Snails for the Production of Tekhelet and Argaman in Antiquity. In Out of the Blue. from the Depth of the Sea to the National Flag, Catalogue of the Exhibition, 30 May 2018–1 June 2019; Meiri, O., Bloch, Y., Kaplan, Y., Eds.; Bible Lands Museum Jerusalem: Jerusalem, Israel, 2018; pp. 87–97, 190. ISBN 9789657027332. [Google Scholar]
  131. Koren, Z.C. Archaeological Shades of Purple from Flora and Fauna from the Ancient Near East. In Archaeological Chemistry: A Multidisciplinary Analysis of the Past; Orna, M.V., Rasmussen, S.C., Eds.; Cambridge Scholars Publishing; Lady Stephenson Library: Newcastle upon Tyne, UK, 2020; pp. 256–300. ISBN 978-1527559790. [Google Scholar]
  132. Fairclough, H.R., Translator; Virgil: In Two Volumes. 2 Aeneid VII - XII, the Minor Poems; The Loeb classical library 64; William Heinemann Ltd.: London, UK; Harvard University Press: Cambridge, MA, USA, 1966; rev. ed., reprint. [Google Scholar]
  133. Miramontes Seijas, E. Latin Lexicon of Textiles: Clothes, Adornments, Materials and Techniques of Ancient Rome (English, Ancient Greek, and Latin Edition); BAR International Series 3051; BAR Publishing: Oxford, UK, 2021; ISBN 978-1-4073-5844-4. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  134. Walton Rogers, P. Dyes in the Hochdorf Textiles and Report on Tests for Dye in Samples from the Iron-Age (Hallstatt) Site at Hohmichele, Germany. In Hochdorf IV. Die Textilfunde aus dem Späthallstattzeitlichen Fürstengrab von Eberdingen-Hochdorf (Kreis Ludwigsburg) und Weitere Grabtextilien aus Hallstatt- und Latènezeitlichen Kulturgruppen; Banck-Burgess, J., Ed.; Konrad Theiss Verlag: Stuttgart, Germany, 1999; pp. 240–246. ISBN 978-3806214536. [Google Scholar]
  135. Stöllner, T. More than old rags—Textiles from the Iron Age Salt-mine at the Dürrnberg. In Hallstatt Textiles. Technical Analysis, Scientific Investigation and Experiment on Iron Age Textiles; Bichler, P., Grömer, K., Hofmann-de Keijzer, R., Kern, A., Reschreiter, H., Eds.; BAR International Series S1351; Archaeopress: Oxford, UK, 2005; pp. 161–174. ISBN 1-84171-697-9. [Google Scholar]
  136. Zech-Matterne, V.; Leconte, L. New archaeobotanical finds of Isatis tinctoria L. (woad) from Iron Age Gaul and a discussion of the importance of woad in ancient time. Veg. Hist. Archaeobotany 2010, 19, 137–142. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  137. Karapanagiotis, I.; Mantzouris, D.; Cooksey, C.; Mubarak, M.S.; Tsiamyrtzis, P. An improved HPLC method coupled to PCA for the identification of Tyrian purple in archaeological and historical samples. Microchem. J. 2013, 110, 70–80. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  138. Breniquet, C.; Desrosiers, S.; Nowik, W.; Rast-Eicher, A. Les textiles découverts dans les tombes de l’âge du Bronze moyen à Chagar Bazar (Syrie). In Chagar Bazar (Syrie) VIII. Les Tombes Ordinaires de L’âge du Bronze Ancien et Moyen, Chantiers D, F, H, I (1999–2011); Tunca, Ö., Baghdo, A. el-Massih, Eds.; Peeters: Leuven, Belgium, 2018; pp. 11–32. [Google Scholar]
  139. Sotiropoulou, S.; Karapanagiotis, I.; Andrikopoulos, S.; Marketou, T.; Birtacha, K.; Marthari, M. Review and New Evidence on the Molluscan Purple Pigment used in the Early Late Bronze Age Aegean Wall Paintings. Heritage 2021, 4, 171–187. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  140. Kalaitzaki, A.; Vafiadou, A.; Frony, A.; Reese, D.S.; Drivaliari, A.; Liritzis, I. PO-PU-RE: Workshops, use and archaeometric analysis in Pre-Roman Central Eastern Mediterranean. Mediterr. Archaeol. Archaeom. 2017, 17, 103–130. [Google Scholar]
  141. Steigerwald, G. Die antike Purpurfärberei nach dem Bericht Plinius’ des Älteren in seiner ‘Naturalis Historia’. Traditio 1986, 42, 1–57. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  142. Bogensperger, I. Purple and its Various Kinds in Documentary Papyri. In Textile Terminologies from the Orient to the Mediterranean and Europe, 1000 BC to 1000 AD; Gaspa, S., Michel, C., Nosch, M.-L., Eds.; Zea Books: Lincoln, NE, USA, 2017; pp. 235–249. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  143. Forster, E.S.; Heffner, E.H. Lucius Junius Moderatus Columella, on Agriculture with a Recension of the Text and an English Translation; Loeb Classical Library 407; William Heinemann Ltd.: London, UK; Harvard University Press: Cambridge, MA, USA, 1954. [Google Scholar]
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.

Article Metrics

Citations

Article Access Statistics

Journal Statistics
Multiple requests from the same IP address are counted as one view.
Download PDF
Ships Arriving at Ports and Tales of Shipwrecks: Heterotopia and Seafaring, 16th to 18th Centuries
Previous
Digital Resilience and Communication Strategies in Underfunded Museums in Argentina and Spain (2020–2024)
Next