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Review

Sustainable Transportation Solutions for Intelligent Mobility: A Focus on Renewable Energy and Technological Advancements for Electric Vehicles (EVs) and Flying Cars

by
Mohammad Abul Kashem
1,*,
Mohammad Shamsuddoha
2,* and
Tasnuba Nasir
3
1
Department of Marketing, Faculty of Business Administration, Feni University, Feni 3900, Bangladesh
2
Department of Management and Marketing, Western Illinois University, Macomb, IL 61455, USA
3
Oakley School of Business, Quincy University, Quincy, IL 62301, USA
*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Future Transp. 2024, 4(3), 874-890; https://doi.org/10.3390/futuretransp4030042
Submission received: 24 May 2024 / Revised: 31 July 2024 / Accepted: 7 August 2024 / Published: 12 August 2024
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Abstract

:
(1) Introduction: Transportation logistics play a pivotal role in facilitating both individual mobility and supply chain operations on a global scale. However, conventional transportation systems have contributed significantly to urban congestion and environmental degradation. In response to these challenges, there is growing momentum to investigate the potential of renewable energy to power electric vehicles (EVs) and flying automobiles, aiming to reduce fossil fuel dependence and carbon emissions. (2) Objectives: By analyzing key drivers and opportunities for integrating flying vehicles into existing infrastructure through dynamic modeling, this study seeks to accelerate the transition to sustainable transportation. (3) Methodology: A mixed-method approach, combining literature review and causal loop diagram analysis, is employed to understand the factors influencing EV and flying car adoption. (4) Results: Findings highlight the significant potential of renewable energy in reducing emissions and reliance on fossil fuels through widespread EV and flying vehicle adoption. The major drivers and challenges in infrastructure, safety, and airspace management are also identified. In addition, this research emphasizes the importance of sustainable transportation in addressing urban congestion, pollution, and energy security. (5) Conclusions: By leveraging renewable energy and embracing technological advancements, a low-carbon future for transportation can be achieved, benefiting both the environment and society.

1. Introduction

Transportation logistics serve as the lifeblood of modern societies, underpinning both individual mobility and the seamless flow of goods across global supply chains [1]. Yet, the traditional modes of transportation that have long fueled this interconnection have also brought about pressing challenges, such as urban congestion and environmental harm [2]. In recognition of these issues, there has emerged a palpable shift towards embracing intelligent transportation systems (ITS) and sustainable solutions [3], endeavoring to delve into the realm of renewable energy sources as a means to power electric vehicles (EVs) and flying automobiles, with the overarching goal of hastening the transition towards a low-carbon future [4]. In response, the imperative for transitional change in transportation has gained momentum, with governments, industries, and researchers alike exploring novel avenues for mitigating these adverse impacts [5]. Intelligent transportation systems have emerged as a promising frontier, leveraging advanced technologies to optimize traffic flows, enhance safety, and minimize environmental footprint [6,7]. In contrast, conventional transportation systems, while undeniably integral to modern life, have left an indelible mark on urban landscapes, often characterized by congested roadways and polluted air [1,8]. Such challenges are not merely local in nature but extend to encompass broader environmental concerns, including climate change and resource depletion in the context of sustainable transportation [1,2].
Investigating the role of renewable fuels in powering both electric vehicles (EVs) and flying cars presents a multifaceted research endeavor that delves into the technological, economic, and environmental dimensions of sustainable transportation [9]. A key technical aspect lies in the optimization of renewable energy sources, such as solar and wind power, for the generation of electricity to charge EV batteries and power propulsion systems in flying cars [10]. Research could focus on developing efficient energy conversion and storage solutions tailored to the unique energy demands of these vehicles, including advanced battery technologies with high energy density and rapid charging capabilities [11]. Additionally, exploring the feasibility of renewable hydrogen production and distribution infrastructure holds promise for powering fuel cells in both ground-based and aerial vehicles, offering zero-emission alternatives to fossil fuels and mitigating carbon emissions across the transportation sector [12].
Analyzing the dynamic growth and sustainability implications of advancements in battery technology and alternative energy sources like hydrogen fuel cells underscores the importance of long-term viability and scalability in transitioning to renewable transportation fuels [5]. Technical research efforts may involve conducting life cycle assessments to evaluate the environmental impacts and resource requirements of different energy storage solutions, considering factors such as raw material extraction, manufacturing processes, and end-of-life disposal [11,13]. Furthermore, assessing the economic feasibility and market readiness of emerging technologies plays a crucial role in guiding strategic investments and policy decisions aimed at accelerating the adoption of sustainable transportation solutions [14]. By leveraging insights from interdisciplinary research, stakeholders can effectively navigate the evolving landscape of renewable energy integration in EVs and flying cars, driving innovation towards a greener and more resilient transportation infrastructure.
Central to the discourse on sustainable transportation is the pivotal role of renewable energy sources in powering the vehicles of tomorrow [15]. Electric vehicles, heralded for their potential to reduce emissions and reliance on fossil fuels, stand at the forefront of this transition [16]. Yet, the integration of renewable energy into the charging infrastructure remains a critical challenge, necessitating innovative solutions to ensure scalability and reliability [17]. Furthermore, the advent of flying automobiles, once relegated to the realm of science fiction, presents a unique opportunity to reimagine urban mobility while concurrently addressing congestion and emissions [18]. However, the realization of this vision hinges upon the availability of sustainable energy sources to propel these aerial vehicles [5]. Against this backdrop, few researchers have sought to explore the untapped potential of renewable energy sources in powering both ground-based EVs and futuristic flying automobiles [19]. By harnessing the natural abundance of solar, wind, and other renewable resources, the research demonstrating the feasibility and efficacy of transitioning towards a transportation paradigm rooted in sustainability and resilience would be one of the paramount issues [16]. Thus, through a multidisciplinary approach encompassing systematic review and itemized causal loop model, this study endeavors to shed light on the opportunities and challenges inherent in realizing a low-carbon future powered by renewable energy-driven transportation systems.
Owing to its significance, this paper systematically reviews the existing literature across multiple fields, including renewable energy, transportation technologies, policy frameworks, and environmental studies. This broad scope ensures that all relevant factors are considered, offering a well-rounded perspective on the topic. On the other hand, the use of an itemized causal loop model allows for a detailed analysis of the dynamic relationships between different variables. This model helps identify feedback loops and causal relationships that are often overlooked in traditional reviews, providing deeper insights into the complex interactions at play. In addition, the detailed causal loop model and the systematic review provide a foundation for future research. Scholars can build on this work to explore specific aspects in greater depth, develop new models, and conduct empirical studies that test the theoretical insights presented in this paper. This research thus serves as a catalyst for further academic inquiry and innovation in the field.

2. Renewable Fuels in Transportation

The research sets out with a multifaceted approach to investigate the potential of renewable fuels in revolutionizing the landscape of transportation, particularly in the realms of electric vehicles (EVs) and flying cars [9]. By delving into this intersection of renewable energy and transportation, the greater importance is focused not only on reducing reliance on fossil fuels but also on mitigating carbon emissions, thereby addressing pressing environmental concerns [13]. This parameter holds significant implications for the respective fields, as it seeks to explore innovative solutions for sustainable mobility while concurrently advancing the discourse on renewable energy integration [20]. Moreover, by analyzing the dynamic growth and sustainability implications of advancements in battery technology and alternative energy sources like hydrogen fuel cells, the research movement is crucial for contributing to the ongoing dialogue surrounding energy transition and resilience in the face of climate change [21,22].
Renewable fuels, such as hydrogen and electricity, have garnered significant attention in mitigating carbon emissions and reducing reliance on fossil fuels in the transportation sector. Zero-emission vehicles powered by renewable fuels offer a promising solution to combat climate change by reducing greenhouse gas emissions [23]. The transition to renewable fuels, particularly hydrogen fuel cells and advancements in battery technology for electric vehicles (EVs), is crucial for achieving sustainability goals in the transport industry [24]. In the exploration of renewable energy sources for powering EVs and flying cars, solar energy, for instance, offers immense potential for both ground-based and aerial vehicles [25]. Advanced photovoltaic (PV) technologies, including thin-film solar cells and solar concentrators, can be integrated into vehicle surfaces such as roofs, hoods, and wings, maximizing energy capture while minimizing aerodynamic drag [26]. Moreover, emerging concepts like solar roadways and solar-powered charging stations hold promise for enhancing the range and sustainability of electric transportation systems [27]. For flying cars, solar-powered drones and air taxis equipped with high-efficiency solar arrays can extend flight endurance and reduce reliance on conventional fossil fuels, enabling cleaner and more autonomous urban air mobility solutions [28].
Wind energy presents another compelling option for renewable propulsion in transportation. Beyond its well-established use in stationary wind turbines, innovative wind-assisted propulsion systems are being developed for both EVs and flying cars [29]. In ground transportation, retractable wind turbines and wind-capturing devices integrated into vehicle design can harness airflow during motion, supplementing electric power and increasing efficiency, particularly on highways and open roads [10]. In the realm of flying cars, vertical axis wind turbines (VAWTs) integrated into air-frames or deployed at takeoff and landing sites can harvest wind energy, providing supplementary thrust and extending flight range [30]. Additionally, advancements in kite-based propulsion systems and airborne wind energy (AWE) technologies offer novel approaches to harnessing wind power for sustainable aerial mobility, promising increased efficiency and reduced environmental impact in urban airspace [31].
According to Table 1, the integration of renewable energy sources with electric vehicle (EV) infrastructure offers substantial environmental and efficiency benefits, as highlighted by recent studies. Barman et al. [27] found that such integration can significantly reduce emissions, though it faces challenges like high initial costs and the need for a robust grid. Similarly, Alkawsi et al. [32] reported that smart grid technologies optimize energy distribution for EV charging stations, improving efficiency and reducing grid strain, albeit with cybersecurity and technical integration issues. Minak [29] demonstrated the viability of solar-powered EV charging stations in high irradiance regions, promoting sustainability despite the variability of solar energy and high setup costs. Sandaka and Kumar [24] highlighted hydrogen fuel cells as an alternative to battery-electric vehicles, offering long-range potential but facing high production costs and storage challenges. Hassan et al. [5] underscored the role of renewable energy-powered EVs in meeting climate targets, yet their effectiveness depends on renewable energy availability and storage. Vishnuram and Alagarsamy [33] noted that integrating EVs with renewable energy microgrids can boost community energy independence, despite high setup costs and technical hurdles. However, Duehnen et al. [34] pointed out that using renewable energy in EV production can lower the overall environmental impact but faces supply chain complexities and cost issues. Finally, Chung et al. [35] emphasized that smart charging algorithms enhance grid stability and reduce energy costs, though their complexity and user acceptance remain concerns.

3. Sustainable Transportation Solutions and the Reduction of Carbon Emissions for EVs and Flying Cars

Stakeholders invested in promoting sustainable transportation solutions for electric vehicles (EVs) and flying cars can leverage insights from innovative approaches to renewable energy integration and carbon emission reduction [36]. One promising avenue lies in the development of smart charging infrastructure that optimizes the utilization of renewable energy sources [32]. By deploying advanced algorithms that forecast renewable energy generation patterns and dynamically adjust charging schedules accordingly, stakeholders can ensure that EVs and flying cars draw power primarily from clean energy sources [9]. Additionally, the implementation of bidirectional charging systems enables vehicles to not only consume energy but also serve as mobile energy storage units, facilitating grid stabilization and further enhancing the reliability of renewable energy integration [27].
Furthermore, stakeholders can explore the potential of vehicle-grid integration (VGI) initiatives to mitigate carbon emissions and enhance grid resilience [33]. Through VGI programs, EVs and flying cars can actively participate in demand response schemes, adjusting their charging or flying schedules in response to fluctuations in renewable energy availability and grid congestion [37]. By incentivizing vehicle owners to engage in grid-balancing activities, stakeholders can foster a symbiotic relationship between sustainable transportation and renewable energy infrastructure, driving the decarbonization of the transportation sector while bolstering grid reliability [38]. Moreover, the development of VGI-enabled microgrids presents an opportunity to create localized energy ecosystems where EVs and flying cars serve as integral components, contributing to the establishment of resilient and sustainable transportation networks powered by clean energy sources [35].
Table 2 summarizes recent research on various innovations in electric vehicles (EVs) and urban mobility, highlighting their potential impacts and associated challenges. Wu et al. [39] emphasize the importance of policy incentives to boost EV adoption, though economic feasibility and sustainability of these incentives are concerns. Chapman and Fujii [36] suggest that flying cars could alleviate urban traffic congestion, but issues such as air traffic management and noise pollution need to be addressed. Wireless charging for EVs, as discussed by Lebrouhi et al. [40], offers convenience but faces efficiency losses and high development costs. Bathla et al. [41] highlight the efficiency benefits of autonomous driving technology for EVs, tempered by ethical and legal challenges.
Studies like those by Cohen et al. [42] and Ali et al. [8] explore the transformative potential of electric vertical takeoff and landing (eVTOL) aircraft and the integration of EVs in public transportation, respectively, each noting significant infrastructure and regulatory hurdles. Liu et al. [11] point out the lower lifecycle emissions of EVs compared to internal combustion engine vehicles, although battery production and disposal remain issues. Muratori et al. [43] and Bao et al. [44] discuss the benefits of EV car-sharing programs and smart mobility solutions, respectively, highlighting infrastructural and technological integration challenges. The development of lightweight materials, renewable energy policies, and AI in traffic management are also considered key to enhancing the efficiency and adoption of EVs and flying cars, with material costs, policy implementation, and data privacy being major concerns.

4. Innovations in Battery Technology and Charging Infrastructure

Assessing innovations in battery technology involves a multifaceted approach, considering factors such as energy density, cycle life, and charging rates [34]. These batteries offer potential benefits for electric vehicles, enabling longer driving ranges and reducing overall weight [47]. Furthermore, research into solid-state batteries aims to address safety concerns and improve lifespan by replacing liquid electrolytes with solid alternatives, enhancing stability and reducing the risk of thermal runaway events [48]. Additionally, advancements in battery management systems, utilizing artificial intelligence and machine learning algorithms, enable precise monitoring of battery health and optimization of charging protocols, extending battery longevity and enhancing overall performance [49].
In parallel, the evolution of charging infrastructure plays a pivotal role in the widespread adoption of electric vehicles. Rapid charging technologies, such as ultra-fast chargers capable of delivering up to 350 kW, are poised to revolutionize the charging experience, drastically reducing charging times and enhancing convenience for EV drivers [50]. Moreover, the integration of bidirectional charging capabilities enables vehicles to serve as energy storage units, facilitating grid stabilization and enabling vehicle-to-grid (V2G) applications [51]. Propulsion systems for electric vehicles are also undergoing transitional changes, with advancements in electric motor design, regenerative braking systems, and power electronics leading to increased efficiency and performance [52]. Furthermore, the convergence of electric propulsion with autonomous capabilities represents a paradigm shift in transportation, with AI-driven autonomous vehicles offering the potential for safer, more efficient, and environmentally sustainable mobility solutions [41].
The following table (Table 3) provides a snapshot of research articles focusing on sustainable transportation solutions for intelligent mobility, covering both electric vehicles and flying cars, outlining the authors, key findings, impact, and issues addressed in each study.
Table 3 summarizes key research findings on advancements in electric vehicle (EV) and flying car technologies, highlighting their impacts and associated challenges. Kasliwal et al. [22] emphasize that battery storage advancements are crucial for flying cars’ viability, improving range and efficiency, though safety and regulatory issues remain. Alqahtani and Kumar [9] suggest blockchain technology can enhance EV charging security, but its integration complexity and energy consumption are concerns. Chen and Folly [37] highlight artificial intelligence’s role in optimizing energy management in smart grids for EVs, improving distribution and cost-efficiency despite data privacy and algorithmic bias issues.
Other significant findings include Mateen et al.’s [50] emphasis on renewable energy integration for grid stability, and Brown and Davis [53] showcasing Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G) technology’s potential to enhance grid stability and provide revenue for EV owners. Challenges such as battery degradation, high costs of fast-charging infrastructure [54], and the need for robust charging networks [17] are also highlighted. Additionally, innovations like solid-state batteries [47], wireless inductive charging [25], and smart grids [56] offer significant benefits but face high costs and technological maturity issues.

5. Methodology

This research adopts a mixed-method approach, integrating both literature review and causal loop diagram analysis to comprehensively explore the potential of renewable energy sources in powering electric vehicles (EVs) and flying cars, and to provide insights into sustainable transportation solutions under the astute direction of Shamsuddoha et al. [57].

5.1. Systematic Literature Review

A systematic literature review is conducted to gather and analyze existing research, publications, and reports related to sustainable transportation and renewable energy technologies. This review encompasses a wide range of sources, including academic journals, conference proceedings, industry reports, government publications, and expert opinions. Through this process, current trends, challenges, opportunities, and best practices in the field are identified and synthesized to establish a comprehensive understanding of the subject matter.

5.2. Flowchart for the Systematic Literature Review Process

Below is the flowchart for the systematic literature review process:
This flowchart (Figure 1) outlines the systematic process of conducting a literature review to gather and analyze existing research on sustainable transportation and renewable energy technologies. It begins with defining the research scope and identifying keywords and search terms. Then, it proceeds through database searches, screening titles and abstracts, selecting relevant articles, retrieving full-text articles, and assessing their quality and relevance. Subsequently, the flowchart involves data extraction, synthesis, analysis, and interpretation to summarize key trends and insights. Finally, it concludes with the writing of the literature review report.

5.3. Systematic Literature Review Process

A. 
Setting Research Question: Investigate the current research on renewable fuels in EVs and flying cars affecting transportation’s growth and sustainability;
B. 
Search Strategy: Use academic databases (PubMed, IEEE Xplore, Scopus) and search engines (Google Scholar) with keywords like “renewable fuels”, “hydrogen fuel cells”, “electric vehicles”, “flying cars”, “carbon emissions”, “transportation infrastructure”, and “sustainability”;
C. 
Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria: Include peer-reviewed articles, conference papers, government reports, and industry publications from the past decade; exclude non-English publications, irrelevant studies, and duplicates;
D. 
Screening and Selection: Review titles, abstracts, and full texts using inclusion/exclusion criteria;
E. 
Data Extraction and Synthesis: Gather key findings, methodologies, and conclusions, categorizing by themes such as renewable fuel technologies, sustainability, challenges, and opportunities;
F. 
Quality Assessment: Evaluate studies’ quality and reliability, considering biases;
G. 
Analysis and Interpretation: Analyze data to identify themes, trends, and implications within the research context.
Table 4 highlights differences in the number of academic papers found across Google Scholar, PubMed, and OpenAlex on topics such as hydrogen fuel cells, renewable fuels, carbon emissions, electric vehicles, flying cars, sustainability, and transportation infrastructure. For instance, Google Scholar yielded the most papers for “hydrogen fuel cells” (3930), while PubMed led for “renewable fuels” (3949). Searches for “flying cars” showed stark contrasts, with Google Scholar finding 243 papers compared to PubMed’s 52.
According to Table 5, 2256 papers were found, with an average of 173.39 citations per paper, underscoring the impact and relevance of the research. Each paper averaged 2.9 authors, indicating high collaboration. The papers have an h-index of 332, g-index of 508, hI_norm of 201, and hI_annual of 1.76, indicating high citation impact. The hA value of 94 highlights the significant scholarly contributions of the authors.

5.4. Causal Loop Model

This causal loop diagram (CLD) is constructed to visually represent the complex interactions and feedback loops between key factors influencing the adoption of EVs and flying cars with the ideology from Shamsuddoha and Woodside [58] and Shamsuddoha et al. [59] to develop a causal model using concern variables like energy cost, government regulations, traffic, innovative technologies, etc. Basically, this model allows for the depiction of causal relationships among various variables such as technological advancements, policy interventions, market dynamics, consumer behavior, and infrastructure development. By mapping out these interdependencies (Figure 2), the CLD facilitates the identification of leverage points and system dynamics that can influence the transition towards sustainable transportation. Through iterative refinement and validation, the CLD helps to uncover insights into the underlying mechanisms driving the adoption of renewable energy-powered transportation solutions and to inform strategic decision-making processes.
Consumer Preferences and EV Adoption Rate: As the adoption of renewable fuels like hydrogen increases, there is a corresponding decrease in the consumption of fossil fuels, leading to a reduction in carbon emissions [60]. This reduction in emissions propels further adoption of renewable fuels due to their environmental benefits, creating a positive reinforcement loop [61].
Battery Technology Advancement: Progress in battery technology, such as enhancements in energy density and charging efficiency, makes electric vehicles (EVs) more practical and appealing to consumers [42]. Additionally, technologies such as vehicle-to-grid (V2G) enable bidirectional energy flow, allowing EVs to serve as storage units and support grid stability [51]. This, in turn, enhances the reliability and sustainability of the energy supply, fostering a symbiotic relationship between EV adoption and grid stability [16].
Renewable Energy Integration: Government policies that incentivize the use of renewable fuels and electric vehicles (EVs) create a positive feedback loop [39]. These policies encourage businesses and consumers to invest in renewable energy technologies, leading to increased adoption [56]. As adoption rates rise, policymakers are further motivated to implement supportive regulations, reinforcing the cycle [62]. In this case, government incentives, including tax rebates, subsidies, and regulatory measures, exert a significant influence on EV adoption rates [54]. Higher incentives encourage consumers to make the switch to electric vehicles, thereby driving market demand and prompting manufacturers to expand their EV offerings [21].
Infrastructure Development: The expansion of infrastructure, such as hydrogen refueling stations, supports the adoption of renewable fuel-powered vehicles [5]. As infrastructure improves, the perceived viability and convenience of renewable fuels increase, driving further adoption and investment in infrastructure development, creating a positive reinforcement loop [55]. However, as charging infrastructure proliferates, it enhances the feasibility and practicality of EV ownership, thereby bolstering consumer confidence and driving further market growth [27].
Safety and Regulatory Compliance: Safety concerns and regulatory compliance requirements for flying cars necessitate ongoing improvements in technology and regulations [46]. As safety standards improve, public trust in flying cars increases, leading to greater acceptance and potentially further advancements in safety technology, creating a balancing loop [28].
Public Perception and Acceptance: Public perception of renewable fuels and flying cars influences adoption rates [63]. Positive experiences and effective communication about the benefits of these technologies can increase public acceptance and adoption rates [64]. However, negative incidents or perceptions may slow adoption, requiring efforts to rebuild trust, creating a balancing loop [65]. As individuals increasingly prioritize factors such as sustainability and cost-effectiveness, the demand for EVs rises correspondingly [48]. This surge in demand not only fuels innovation within the industry but also influences government policies and infrastructure development initiatives [5].
Technological Innovation and Investment: Increased investment in research and development drives technological innovation in renewable fuels and flying car technology [66]. As new advancements emerge, the performance, efficiency, and safety of these technologies improve, stimulating further investment and innovation, creating a positive reinforcement loop [45]. On the other hand, demand response capabilities, enabled by technologies like V2G, allow EVs to adjust their charging patterns in response to grid conditions [50]. This flexibility not only supports grid stability but also optimizes energy usage and reduces overall electricity costs [42], thereby excelling further EV adoption and infrastructure investment.
These descriptions provide a comprehensive understanding of the complex interplay of factors contributing to a more holistic view of the dynamics involved in the transition to renewable fuels and the integration of flying cars into transportation infrastructure.
Finally, by employing this mixed-method approach, the research aims to provide a comprehensive analysis of the role of renewable energy sources in shaping the future of transportation. The integration of the literature review and causal loop diagram analysis enables a holistic understanding of the complex interactions and dynamics at play, thereby offering valuable insights and guidance for promoting sustainable transportation solutions.

5.5. Role of Hydrogen Fuel Cells in Reducing Fossil Fuel Reliance and Carbon Emissions

I. Zero Emissions and Sustainability: Hydrogen fuel cells offer a genuinely zero-emission solution for the transportation sector, generating electricity with only water vapor as the emission product [24]. This characteristic is pivotal in reducing the carbon footprint of transportation, aligning with global efforts to combat climate change and mitigate greenhouse gas emissions [16].
II. Rapid Refueling and Operational Efficiency: Hydrogen refueling times, notably for heavy-duty trucking, are significantly faster compared to other zero-emission alternatives like battery electric vehicles (BEVs) [10]. With refueling taking only a few minutes, hydrogen-powered vehicles can minimize downtime, crucial for operational efficiency in industries reliant on heavy-duty transportation [67].
III. Adaptable Production and Renewable Integration: The versatility of hydrogen production from various renewable resources through water electrolysis enables regions with surplus renewable energy to participate in the energy transition [68]. This adaptability fosters a more inclusive approach to renewable energy utilization and allows for the transportation of hydrogen to areas lacking renewable infrastructure [15].
IV. Policy Developments Driving Adoption: Legislative frameworks such as the USA’s Inflation Reduction Act (IRA) and European Union’s mandatory national targets for hydrogen refueling infrastructure deployment play a pivotal role in accelerating the integration of hydrogen into road transport [69]. These policies provide incentives and subsidies, alleviating costs associated with hydrogen infrastructure development and fostering a competitive hydrogen ecosystem [38].
V. De-carbonization Challenges and Strategies: Realizing the full potential of hydrogen in heavy-duty trucking requires concerted action, including infrastructure expansion, collaboration among stakeholders, policy support, and sustained research and development [5]. These efforts are essential for overcoming challenges associated with infrastructure deployment, technology adoption, and regulatory frameworks [21].

6. Summary Overview on Potential Opportunities and Challenges for Sustainable Transportation Solutions as for Intelligent Mobility

6.1. Potential Opportunities

6.1.1. Environmental Benefits

-
Significant reduction in greenhouse gas emissions and air pollutants.
-
Decreased reliance on fossil fuels through the use of renewable energy sources.

6.1.2. Technological Advancements

-
Improvements in battery technology, leading to longer ranges and shorter charging times for EVs.
-
Development of advanced propulsion systems for flying cars, increasing efficiency and safety.

6.1.3. Economic Growth

-
Job creation in the renewable energy and electric vehicle sectors.
-
Potential for new markets and industries related to flying car technology.

6.1.4. Energy Independence

-
Reduced dependency on imported oil, enhancing national energy security.
-
Increased use of locally produced renewable energy sources.

6.1.5. Urban Mobility and Traffic Reduction

-
Alleviation of traffic congestion through the use of flying cars and intelligent mobility solutions.
-
Improved public transportation systems integrating EVs.

6.1.6. Innovation in Infrastructure

-
Development of smart grids and charging infrastructure for EVs.
-
Creation of vertiports and other infrastructure for flying cars.

6.1.7. Enhanced User Experience

-
Advanced features such as autonomous driving and AI integration in EVs and flying cars.
-
Improved comfort and convenience for users.

6.2. Challenges

6.2.1. High Initial Costs

-
High development and manufacturing costs for EVs and flying cars.
-
Significant investment required for infrastructure development.

6.2.2. Technological Barriers

-
Challenges in battery technology, such as energy density and recycling.
-
Safety and regulatory concerns for flying cars.

6.2.3. Infrastructure Development

-
Need for extensive charging networks for EVs.
-
Requirement for new infrastructure like vertiports for flying cars.

6.2.4. Regulatory and Policy Issues

-
Complex and evolving regulations for the approval and operation of flying cars.
-
Need for supportive policies and incentives for renewable energy and EV adoption.

6.2.5. Energy Supply and Storage

-
Intermittency of renewable energy sources like solar and wind.
-
Challenges in energy storage and grid management.

6.2.6. Public Acceptance and Adoption

-
Consumer hesitation due to range anxiety and unfamiliarity with new technologies.
-
Concerns over the safety and practicality of flying cars.

6.2.7. Environmental and Social Impacts

-
Potential environmental impacts of large-scale battery production and disposal.
-
Social equity issues related to the accessibility and affordability of new transportation technologies.

7. Conclusions

The role of hydrogen fuel cells in reducing reliance on fossil fuels and mitigating carbon emissions presents a promising pathway for decarbonizing road transport. This research highlights the crucial role of sustainable transportation in alleviating urban congestion, reducing environmental degradation, and enhancing energy security. By utilizing renewable energy sources to power electric vehicles and flying automobiles, a significant decrease in fossil fuel dependence and carbon emissions can be achieved. While this study offers valuable insights into the potential of these technologies, it also emphasizes the challenges of integrating them into existing infrastructure. To fully realize the benefits of a low-carbon transportation future, concerted efforts are needed to address these challenges and promote the widespread adoption of sustainable transportation solutions. However, realizing this potential requires concerted action from stakeholders across various sectors, including infrastructure development, collaboration, policy support, and research and development. Similarly, the integration of flying vehicles into transportation infrastructure offers revitalized opportunities for urban mobility but necessitates comprehensive approaches addressing technological, legal, societal, and environmental challenges. Building on the findings of this study, future research should focus on in-depth analysis of infrastructure requirements including developing charging stations and landing pads. Further research is needed to assess the economic impacts of transitioning to a sustainable transportation system including job creation and cost-benefit analysis. Ostensibly, understanding the factors influencing public acceptance of these new technologies and developing strategies to promote behavioral changes related to transportation choices are crucial for the successful implementation of sustainable transportation solutions.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, methodology, literature review, resources, M.A.K., T.N. and M.S.; writing—original draft preparation, writing—review and editing, M.A.K., M.S. and T.N., Software—M.A.K. and M.S., Revisions based on reviewers’ comments—M.A.K. and M.S. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

Not applicable.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Futuretransp 04 00042 g001
Figure 1. Flowchart for the Systematic Literature Review.
Figure 1. Flowchart for the Systematic Literature Review.
Futuretransp 04 00042 g001
Futuretransp 04 00042 g002
Figure 2. Causal Loop Model.
Figure 2. Causal Loop Model.
Futuretransp 04 00042 g002
Table 1. Renewable Fuels in Transportation.
Table 1. Renewable Fuels in Transportation.
AuthorKey FindingsImpactIssues
Barman et al. [27]Integration of renewable energy sources with EV charging infrastructure can significantly reduce emissions.Reduction in greenhouse gas emissions and reliance on fossil fuels.High initial costs and need for robust grid infrastructure.
Alkawsi et al. [32]Smart grid technologies can optimize the energy distribution for EV charging stations.Improved energy efficiency and reduced strain on the power grid.Cybersecurity risks and technical integration issues.
Minak [29]Solar-powered EV charging stations are viable in regions with high solar irradiance.Sustainable and self-sufficient charging infrastructure.Variable solar energy availability and high setup costs.
Sandaka and Kumar [24]Hydrogen fuel cells offer a viable alternative to battery-electric vehicles.Potential for long-range electric vehicles with quick refueling.High production costs and hydrogen storage challenges.
Hassan et al. [5]Renewable energy-powered EVs can significantly contribute to meeting climate targets.Progress towards international climate goals and reduced carbon footprint.Dependence on renewable energy availability and storage capacity.
Vishnuram and Alagarsamy [33]Integration of EVs with renewable energy microgrids can enhance energy independence for communities.Increased energy autonomy and sustainability for local communities.High setup costs and technical integration challenges.
Duehnen et al. [34]Integration of renewable energy sources in EV production can reduce the overall environmental impact.More sustainable manufacturing processes and reduced carbon footprint.Supply chain complexity and cost considerations.
Chung et al. [35]Smart charging algorithms can optimize EV charging schedules to minimize grid impact.Improved grid stability and reduced energy costs.Complexity of algorithm implementation and user acceptance.
Table 2. Sustainable Transportation Solutions and the Reduction of Carbon Emissions for EVs and Flying Cars.
Table 2. Sustainable Transportation Solutions and the Reduction of Carbon Emissions for EVs and Flying Cars.
AuthorKey FindingsImpactIssues
Wu et al. [39]Policy incentives are critical to accelerate the adoption of electric vehicles.Increased adoption rates of EVs in urban areas.Economic feasibility and long-term sustainability of incentives.
Chapman and Fujii [36]Flying cars can potentially reduce traffic congestion in urban areas.Improved urban mobility and reduced travel time.Air traffic management and noise pollution.
Lebrouhi et al. [40]Wireless charging technology for EVs is promising but requires further development.Convenience and potential for widespread adoption.Efficiency losses and high development costs.
Bathla et al. [41]Autonomous driving technology can enhance the efficiency of electric vehicles.Reduced energy consumption and improved traffic flow.Ethical concerns and legal regulations for autonomous vehicles.
Cohen et al. [42]Electric vertical takeoff and landing (eVTOL) aircraft can revolutionize urban air mobility.Potential for reduced urban congestion and faster commutes.Infrastructure needs and airspace regulation.
Ali et al. [8]Public transportation systems integrating EVs can reduce urban pollution levels.Cleaner urban air and reduced health risks.Coordination and funding for public transit electrification.
Liu et al. [11]The lifecycle emissions of EVs are significantly lower than those of internal combustion engine vehicles.Reduced overall environmental impact of transportation.Emissions from battery production and end-of-life disposal.
Muratori et al. [43]EV car-sharing programs can reduce the number of vehicles on the road and urban congestion.Decreased traffic congestion and lower emissions per capita.Infrastructure for car-sharing and public acceptance.
Bao et al. [44]Smart mobility solutions incorporating EVs can enhance public transportation efficiency.Improved public transit experience and reduced environmental impact.Technological integration and funding requirements.
Jansen and Petrova [16]Urban planning incorporating EV infrastructure can optimize traffic flow and reduce emissions.Cleaner urban environments and improved traffic management.Coordination between urban planners and transportation authorities.
Bukhari et al. [23]Renewable energy policies can drive the adoption of EVs and flying cars.Accelerated transition to sustainable transportation systems.Policy implementation and economic incentives.
Gill et al. [45]The use of AI in traffic management systems can improve the efficiency of EV and flying car operations.Enhanced traffic flow and reduced congestion.Data privacy and system reliability.
Brzeziński and
Kolinski [1]		Electrification of public transit can significantly reduce urban emissions.Cleaner air quality and reduced health risks.Infrastructure investments and operational changes.
Kiesewetter et al. [12]Development of hybrid flying cars can combine the benefits of electric and traditional propulsion systems.Potential for longer ranges and better performance.Technological complexity and higher costs.
Mohsan et al. [28]Electric flying taxis can revolutionize urban air mobility and reduce surface traffic congestion.Faster and more flexible urban transportation options.Safety, regulatory, and infrastructure challenges.
Stöcker et al. [46]Adoption of flying cars requires significant advancements in air traffic management systems.Potential to reduce urban congestion and improve travel times.Airspace management and regulatory hurdles.
Table 3. Sustainable Transportation Solutions for Intelligent Mobility, Covering both Electric Vehicles and Flying Cars.
Table 3. Sustainable Transportation Solutions for Intelligent Mobility, Covering both Electric Vehicles and Flying Cars.
AuthorKey FindingsImpactIssues
Kasliwal et al. [22]Technological advancements in battery storage are crucial for the viability of flying cars.Enhanced range and efficiency of electric vehicles and flying cars.Safety concerns and regulatory challenges.
Alqahtani and Kumar [9]The use of blockchain technology can improve the security of EV charging transactions.Enhanced trust and transparency in EV charging networks.Integration complexity and energy consumption of blockchain technology.
Chen and Folly [37]Artificial intelligence can optimize the energy management in smart grids for EVs.Improved energy distribution and reduced costs.Data privacy concerns and algorithmic biases.
Mateen et al. [50]Renewable energy integration in EV charging can provide grid stability and energy security.Increased resilience and sustainability of energy supply.Intermittency of renewable sources and need for storage solutions.
Brown and Davis [53]Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G) technology allows EVs to supply power back to the grid during peak demand.Enhanced grid stability and additional revenue for EV owners.Battery degradation concerns and regulatory framework for V2G.
Yu et al. [51]Distributed ledger technologies can improve the coordination of decentralized EV charging stations.Improved efficiency and reliability of charging networks.Technical integration and scalability challenges.
Kumar et al. [54]Fast-charging infrastructure is essential for the widespread adoption of EVs.Reduced charging times and increased convenience for users.High costs and potential grid strain.
Fichtner [47]Solid-state batteries can offer higher energy density and safety for EVs.Longer driving ranges and enhanced safety.High manufacturing costs and technological maturity.
Ravindran et al. [17]The development of robust charging networks is critical for the success of electric vehicles.Increased convenience and reliability for EV users.High installation and maintenance costs.
Feng et al. [55]EV adoption can be accelerated by improving charging infrastructure in residential areas.Increased EV ownership and reduced urban emissions.Coordination with local utilities and space availability.
Cao et al. [38]Integrating renewable energy with EV charging stations can enhance energy sustainability.Reduced carbon footprint and increased energy independence.Variability in renewable energy supply and initial setup costs.
Telli et al. [25]Wireless inductive charging for EVs can enhance convenience but faces efficiency challenges.Potential for widespread adoption due to user convenience.Lower efficiency and higher energy losses compared to wired charging.
Jenn [56]Smart grids can effectively manage the increased load from widespread EV adoption.Enhanced grid reliability and energy efficiency.High implementation costs and cybersecurity risks.
Machín et al. [48]Battery swapping technology can reduce EV downtime and enhance user convenience.Increased user satisfaction and potential for wider adoption.Infrastructure requirements and standardization issues.
Afonso et al. [52] Development of high-power charging stations can reduce EV charging times significantly.Enhanced convenience and reduced range anxiety for EV users.Potential grid impact and high installation costs.
Table 4. Systematic Literature Search.
Table 4. Systematic Literature Search.
Keywords/Search StringSearch EngineNo. of Papers
“hydrogen fuel cells”Google Scholar3930
PubMed2541
OpenAlex3645
“renewable fuels”PubMed3949
Google Scholar2900
OpenAlex3609
“carbon emissions” AND “electric vehicles”Google Scholar40
PubMed44
“flying cars”Google Scholar243
PubMed52
OpenAlex238
“sustainability” AND “electric vehicles”Google Scholar136
PubMed118
“renewable fuels” AND “flying cars”Google Scholar48
“transportation infrastructure”AND “electric vehicles”Google Scholar39
PubMed2
OpenAlex102
“flying cars” AND “electric vehicles”PubMed3
OpenAlex16
Initial selectionGoogle Scholar, PubMed
OpenAlex		2256
Table 5. Citation Metrics.
Table 5. Citation Metrics.
PapersCitationsCites_YearCites_PaperCites_AuthorPapers_AuthorAuthors_Paperh_Indexg_IndexhI_NormhI_AnnualhA
2256391,1663431.28173.39162,409.951100.642.93325082011.7694
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Kashem, M.A.; Shamsuddoha, M.; Nasir, T. Sustainable Transportation Solutions for Intelligent Mobility: A Focus on Renewable Energy and Technological Advancements for Electric Vehicles (EVs) and Flying Cars. Future Transp. 2024, 4, 874-890. https://doi.org/10.3390/futuretransp4030042

AMA Style

Kashem MA, Shamsuddoha M, Nasir T. Sustainable Transportation Solutions for Intelligent Mobility: A Focus on Renewable Energy and Technological Advancements for Electric Vehicles (EVs) and Flying Cars. Future Transportation. 2024; 4(3):874-890. https://doi.org/10.3390/futuretransp4030042

Chicago/Turabian Style

Kashem, Mohammad Abul, Mohammad Shamsuddoha, and Tasnuba Nasir. 2024. "Sustainable Transportation Solutions for Intelligent Mobility: A Focus on Renewable Energy and Technological Advancements for Electric Vehicles (EVs) and Flying Cars" Future Transportation 4, no. 3: 874-890. https://doi.org/10.3390/futuretransp4030042

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