**5. Conclusions**

Rainwater samples tested in this study showed contamination with varying concentrations of pathogenic *E. coli* strains. The outcome of the study further demonstrates that HRW tanks could serve as reservoirs for not only pathogenic but also antibiotic-resistant *E. coli* strains including MAR strains. These findings suggest that the tested harvested rainwater was not fit for human consumption and, therefore, should not be used for potable purposes without appropriate treatment. Furthermore, routine monitoring and treatment are essential to ensure that harvested rainwater is fit for intended use as well as to stimulate the need for strategies (e.g., maintenance of HRW systems, constant cleaning of the roof, and installation of first-flush diverters to minimise faecal contamination) that would prevent the spread of antibiotic-resistant bacteria.

**Author Contributions:** A.L.K.A. and E.U.-J. conceived and designed the experiments as well as editing the manuscript; M.S.M. performed the experiments, analyzed the data and wrote the manuscript; R.T. and B.Z. contributed reagents/materials/analysis tools, sample collection as well as laboratory analysis and input on manuscript write-up; and J.-M.M.K. acquired the financial support for the project leading to this publication, supervised the project, and edited the manuscript.

**Acknowledgments:** This study was supported by funds from the Parliamentary Grant of the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR Project ECHS043) and the Water Research Commission (WRC project K5/2593). Rhodes University provided access to monitoring sites and laboratory space for sample analysis. CSIR colleague Lisa Schaefer is thanked for advice on laboratory PCR analysis.

**Conflicts of Interest:** The authors declare no conflict of interest.

#### **References**


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International Journal of *Environmental Research and Public Health*
