*2.2. On-Farm Irrigation Development*

In the recent past, a number of on-farm research and development projects aimed at improving the WUE have been undertaken. The funding scheme discussed above mainly focused on large irrigation schemes, but the Australian Government also initiated the On-farm Irrigation Efficiency Program to help individual irrigators improve their irrigation infrastructure or change irrigation practices (e.g., convert to more efficient irrigation methods) in order to save water. The most significant developments, especially in the surface system, appear to be automatic gates or outlets, water metering and use of telemetry systems. Some of the on-farm modernisation and automation projects have also been funded by the irrigators themselves.

Gates are structures placed in irrigation channels or bay/basin outlets to control flow of water, and be may be controlled by a mechanical timer or electric solenoid. Some gates also have the capacity to measure the flow rate. There has been an increase in the use of telemetry systems in irrigation to allow for remote measurement and control of various parameters. The mode of communication used by these telemetry systems include radio, telephone, infrared, satellite and internet. In Australia, there are commercially available on-farm irrigation telemetry systems manufactured by local companies, such as AWMA and Rubicon that utilise the Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) platform.

These on-farm automation developments may appear to be focussed on reducing the irrigation labour requirement especially in the surface systems, but they also play a role in improving the WUE. This is because, with automated systems, there is less chance of human error that may lead to water loss. A good example of this is that in manual surface irrigation systems, inflow is turned on and off at the completion of the irrigation by an operator. A delay of cutting off the flow will therefore lead to water losses. Improvement of application efficiencies of well-managed automated-bay-irrigated fields in Northern Victoria was demonstrated by Smith et al. [11].

### *2.3. Irrigation Modernisation in Developed and Developing Countries*

The above discussion on irrigation modernisation and automation has largely focused on Australia. To provide context, this subsection will briefly examine the scenario in the rest of the world, particularly in Spain and the Unites States, two countries which are also major irrigating economies in Europe and North America, respectively.

According to Plusquellec [6], developed and some emerging countries generally possess conditions favourable for automation and modernisation of especially large-scale irrigation systems, for instance:


Background information about irrigation modernisation and automation in Spain can be obtained from a number of articles, for instance González-Cebollada [12] and Lecina et al. [13]. Significant Spanish Government reforms and modernisation to manage demand of water began in 2002, and as was the case in Australia, the projects were largely taxpayer-funded, and the objectives included revitalisation of the irrigation sector and water conservation. The programs included improvement of the irrigation water distribution network and promotion of water-efficient methods such as the drip system. Similarly, the modernisation of irrigation systems in the United States aimed to improve the water delivery system using methods such as modification of check structures, use of reticulation systems, improved measurement and control, and the use of SCADA systems [14]. However, in a survey conducted by the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) a few years ago, it was estimated that at least half of the United States cropland was still irrigated with less efficient irrigation methods [15].
