(5) Reform Oversight and Champions

MONRE is mandated to oversee overall water resource managemen<sup>t</sup> but faces challenges in fulfilling its role. This is because water policy development and implementation are fragmented across national ministries with limited coordination between MONRE, other national ministries, and provincial governments [126]. To illustrate, commissions for environmental protection were established in three major river basins (Cau, Nhue-Day and Dong Nai-Sai Gon) in 2007–2009, but they have struggled to achieve environmental targets [118]. Another challenge is cooperation between national and local levels. Dual supervisory roles of central agencies and provincial people's committees, in addition to unclear reporting mechanisms, have also limited the efficiency of water governance [119,126].

Reform oversight is challenged by inadequate transboundary cooperation mechanisms. The Mekong River Commission was formed in 1995 by an agreemen<sup>t</sup> between Laos, Thailand, Cambodia and Vietnam, but two upstream countries of China and Myanmar are not members. As a result, decisions on building upstream hydropower plants have not fully taken into account downstream costs in relation to livelihoods and the environment [135].
