(5) Reform Oversight and Champions

The federal and bi-national structure of the basin involves multiple layers of oversight. It also creates ambiguity regarding authority and accountability [115]. The US Secretary of Interior serves as the "rivermaster" under the Colorado River Compact, and the federal governmen<sup>t</sup> can, therefore, take unilateral action when the state governments lag. A credible threat has been issued in 2004 and 2018 as a spur to action by the state governments to negotiate rules for sharing the risks of shortage. Shortage rules issued in 2007 signaled this potential, noting that the Secretary 'shall evaluate and take additional necessary actions, as appropriate, at critical elevations in order to avoid Lower Basin shortage determinations as reservoir conditions approach critical thresholds ... ' ([115], p. 40). On 13 December 2018, the sitting commissioner of the Bureau of Reclamation, Brenda Burman, threatened federal action on drought contingency planning if the states fail to achieve an agreemen<sup>t</sup> by 31 January 2019.

Paralleling the experience in the Murray–Darling and other cases, the existence of champions has proven pivotal in overcoming resistance to reform, including key organizations as well as influential policy leaders to sustain progress. The nonprofit sector, led by environmental NGOs, such as Environmental Defense and Audubon, have played a key role, facilitated by established members of policy and planning networks, such as high ranking officials in the Bureau of Reclamation and within state agencies [106].
