**1. Introduction**

Knowledge around neuroscience is advancing, as is the development of neurotechnologies [1–3] (the term neuro-advancement will be used for both areas from now on). Neuro-ethics emerged as a field to discuss the social, legal, and ethical issues that arise with neuro-advancements [4]. Neuro-governance is another discourse focusing on how to best advance neuro-related products and processes [5]. Stakeholder involvement is identified within neuroethics and neurotechnology governance discussions as an essential aspect of dealing with neuro-advancements [4–6]. Given that speech-related professionals such as speech-language pathologists (SLPs) and audiologists are exposed

through their work to various neuro-advancements, they have a stake in neuro-advancements, including the ethics and governance discussions focusing on neuro-advancements. Newspapers are one source of information for the public communicating knowledge, including on topics of scientific and technological advancements [7–9], in ways that influences readers [10,11]. As such, it was investigated how the neuro-advancement linked content in Canadian newspapers engaged with speech-related professions and the roles of speech-related professionals. Academic data influences policy decision and the academic neuro-governance and neuroethics literature asks for stakeholder engagement. As speech-related professionals are stakeholders, it was also investigated how the academic literature engaged with the role of speech-related professionals in relation to neuro-advancements.

## *1.1. Role of SLPs and Audiologists*

SLPs are trained professionals who focus on the treatment and assessment of communication and swallowing disorders [12]. Audiologists specialize in the prevention and identification of hearing and balance disorders [12]. According to the organization Speech-Language & Audiology Canada (SAC), the role of these practitioners is very similar, and the scope of practice can be subdivided into three categories: (1) clinical services, (2) advocacy and promotion and (3) education and research [13]. Clinical services include (a) screening of hearing, communication, and swallowing, (b) intervention for communication and swallowing disorders including treatment, rehabilitation, and management, and (c) consultation with other professionals. According to SAC, under the advocacy and promotion sub-category, SLPs are expected to be "advocates on behalf of individuals with communication and swallowing disorders that are at risk" [13]. Audiologists have a similar scope of practice, with an emphasis on the assessment, rehabilitation, treatment, and consultation of individuals, as well as advocacy of those with a hearing disorder [14]. Advocacy is linked to the belief that communication is a human right [15] and can be used to influence organizations such as the World Health Organization, the United Nations and World Bank [15]. At the same time, it is stated that more is needed from SLPs to fulfill the human rights language they use [16]. No studies exist that looked at role narratives of speech-related professionals within content in academic literature and media that deals with neuro-advancements.

## *1.2. Neuro-Advancements and Neuroethics*

Neuroethics was coined as a term and developed as a field to investigate various ethical, social and legal issues raised by the advancement of the neuro-field including the areas of neuroscience, neuro-technologies and neuro-engineering [17–23], as well as individual neuro-applications such as brain-computer interfaces [24,25], cochlear implants (CIs) [26] and deep brain stimulation [27]. Roskies subdivides neuroethics into two groups: ethical issues raised when defining neuroscientific studies, and the evaluation that results from those studies [17]. The first subdivision includes issues such as privacy rights, autonomy, and informed consent. The second subdivision focuses more on the aftermath; how will the use of that knowledge shape society? For example, what will people now determine to be right or wrong in occasions where the use of brain imaging helps to discover that inmates have damaged brain cells. In other words, the issues in this subdivision consider if new knowledge will redefine what normal is. Levy (2008) further highlights the above findings with the conclusion that neuroethics has a heavy focus on how people should pursue knowledge [19]. With the increasing need to create ethical frameworks due to the advancement of neuro-technologies, there is a heightened need for stakeholder engagemen<sup>t</sup> to ge<sup>t</sup> a range of social and ethical perspectives [28]. Stakeholder engagements exist around neuroethics discourses related to various neuro-advancements [24,29,30]. Media coverage impacts how neuroethical issues are perceived and can influence stakeholder engagemen<sup>t</sup> with neuroscience [4,31]. Speech-related professionals have a stake in which neuro-advancements are pursued and how, and as such should play a role in neuroethics and neuro-governance discussions. Given the roles outlined for speech-related professionals by their professional organizations mentioned before, the roles could include influencer of neuroethics and neuro-governance discussions, advocate for their field and their clients in general and within neuroethics and neuro-governance discussions and other neuro-policy discourses, and knowledge producer (researcher) on topics related to SLP and audiology in general and linked to neuroethics, neuro-governance and other neuro-policy discussions.

## *1.3. The Speech-Related Field and Lifelong Learning*

The utility of continual learning, lifelong learning and professional development for individuals is to enable individuals to promote and advocate for the resources needed to care for others [32], to meet the needs of clients [32] and to deal with the constant changes in the health field [32]. The scope of practice for SLPs and audiologists includes ongoing education and learning to provide safe and competent care [13], see also [16,33].

It is argued that SLPs should be given the opportunity to "seek out and be permitted to engage in continuing education experiences to update their knowledge base and hone their skill" [34]. The education of SLPs is recommended to use more problem-centered lifelong learning rather than memorizing a body of knowledge [35]. Furthermore, SLP professional organizations and employers recognize the need to build clinician expertise including continuing professional development courses and mentoring, although many question the usefulness of these approaches [35].

The framework of lifelong learning can help practitioners with di fferent roles in audiological rehabilitation, such as audiologists and SLPs, to provide a holistic approach for individuals with hearing disabilities by updating their competencies. As one expert commented, "A hearing disability is never only the problem of an individual person but also a problem for all those living and working with these individuals. (Re)Habilitation will never be successful without keeping attention and working on the whole social context" [36] (p. 9). Linked to clinical services [37], conscientiousness is linked to a commitment to lifelong learning [38].

It is argued that audiologists should be encouraged to report unethical or morally distressing incidents, using the literature related to ethics in healthcare as a resource [39].

Due to the ongoing changes and development of speech-related fields, practitioners are encouraged and expected to continue their learning as well. As such, the purpose of this study included to investigate how and to what extent newspapers and academic literature mention lifelong learning of SLPs and audiologists in relation to neuro-advancements.

The following research questions were investigated in our study: (1) Which of the 49 neuro-terms were engaged with in relation to speech-related professionals in the literature we investigated; (2) which roles of speech-related professionals were present in relation to neuro-advancements; and (3) to what extent and how was lifelong learning engaged with in relation to neuro-advancements and speech-related professionals?

## **2. Materials and Methods**

## *2.1. Study Design*
