*Communication* **Virtual Reality in the Teaching of FLE in a Brazilian Public School**

#### **Felipe Augusto Nobrega \* and Cibele Cecílio de Faria Rozenfeld \***

Department of Modern Languages, Universidade Estadual Paulista "Júlio de Mesquita Filho", Araraquara, SP-14800-901, Brazil

**\*** Correspondences: felipeaugnobrega@gmail.com (F.A.N.); cibeleroz@gmail.com (C.C.d.F.R.)

Received: 15 December 2018; Accepted: 5 June 2019; Published: 9 June 2019

**Abstract:** Considering the emergence of digital information and communication technologies in the contemporary educational context, this work aims to explore the possibilities offered by Virtual Reality (VR) headsets in the school environment, and also to verify how they can contribute to foreign language teaching and learning. The motivation of this work is a result of a pedagogical practice experience carried out by the researcher during French classes in a Brazilian foreign language teaching project in public schools. This pedagogical practice later became the subject of their master's research, which is currently being conducted in the same educational context in two French language classes. The main objective consists of verifying to what extent VR can contribute to foreign language teaching/learning, focusing on the four linguistic competences and motivation. The methodology of this work has a qualitative nature with some quantitative results, and is characterized as Action Research, as the researcher participated in the activities. These activities consisted of using Google Cardboard, a VR headset, to present interactive 360◦ videos and tours of real places. The preliminary results show that activities with VR can promote a high level of motivation and engagement, also contributing to the development of the four linguistic competences.

**Keywords:** Virtual Reality; language learning; Français Langue Étrangère; Google Cardboard

#### **1. Introduction**

The way people interact with the world and with themselves is being changed through technology. Gradually, new devices and digital resources enter the field of education, bringing several contributions to the improvement of teaching and learning in different spheres of knowledge. Concerning foreign language teaching and learning, this is not different. New tools emerge every day, which can be used inside and outside the classroom, providing different educational paths for teachers and learners. The current work arises from this context, aiming to investigate a new pedagogical practice using Virtual Reality headsets in foreign language teaching. This study presents preliminary results from a master's degree research taking place in Brazil in two French language classes in a Brazilian public school.

Analogous/similarly to the emergence of new tools and devices, many methods and approaches in language teaching emerged throughout the 20th and 21st Centuries (Richards and Rodgers 1999; Larsen-Freeman and Anderson 2011). From the structuralist Grammar–Translation Method to the innovative Communicative Approach, teachers, learners and schools have sought the best method to learn languages. However, as Prabhu (1990) declares, there is no best method. Language learning is a complex process, composed by intrinsic (affective, physical and socio-cognitive) and extrinsic variables (learning material, time to study, exposition to the target language), in which different configurations lead to different ways of learning (Almeida Filho 2007).

Kumaravadivelu (2003) also recognizes the existence of different variables concerning language teaching and learning, described in his Postmethod Pedagogy, structured in a three-dimensional system, composed by the parameters of particularity, practicality and possibility. He argues, specifically in the parameter of particularity, that the concept of method is limited to explaining the complexities of language learning, entailing factors such as the cultural and sociopolitical contexts, the learner's needs, and the cognition of learners and their teachers. In the parameter of practicality, the author sustains the autonomy of teachers, as this parameter understands them as theory generators from their practices, since they possess the tools needed to produce a practical theory. The parameter of possibility seeks social transformation and a continual quest for identity formation through the sociopolitical consciousness brought by the participants to the classroom. Thus, language teachers and learners have the opportunity to impact the context in which they are inserted.

Prabhu (1990) and Kumaravadivelu (2003) conducted research on methods and approaches to language learning. In the Postmethod Pedagogy, considerable efforts are made to go beyond the restraints of methods and approaches, especially in the context where teachers and learners are situated.

We comprehend the autonomy supported by the Postmethod Pedagogy as favorable to using new technologies in language learning, because teaching is not restrained by a particular set of rules or instructions found in some methods, thus the teacher is free to make use of the best tools needed to support the characteristics described in the parameters of particularity, practicality and possibility, as well as the micro and macro strategies proposed by the Postmethod.

Despite all of the attempts to diffuse new technologies in education, there is still resistance within educational contexts (Paiva 2015). This resistance is not solely found in teachers, professors or educational administrators, but also in students. We agree with Lévy (1999) that we need to build new models of knowledge spaces, which are emergent, open, and continuous.

#### *1.1. Computer-Assisted Learning (CALL) and Mobile-Assisted Language Learning (MALL) in a Brazilian Educational Context*

Taking into account the Brazilian educational context, where the present research takes place, the use of digital resources is in constant debate. A recent study (TpE and DRI 2017) has shown that 55% of public school teachers make use of digital technology; however, 54% of teachers declared that they could use more of this resource as long as it does not implicate a higher workload. Considering that four in 10 teachers (41%) in Brazilian basic education also work in complementary activities to increase their income (Todos pela Educação and INEP 2015), inside and outside the educational domain, workload is an important element which must be pondered. Besides workload, other factors such as poor infrastructure, a lack of continuing education, low income and issues inside the classroom affect the Brazilian educational landscape, preventing the effective diffusion of digital technologies for educational purposes. Regarding language learning, the normalization phase of Computer-Assisted Language Learning (CALL) (Bax 2003; Paiva 2015) is still far from being a reality when we consider the current scenario. Even though several Brazilian institutions are making efforts to change it, such as universities, governmental and non-profit organizations, as well as private institutions, there is a considerable amount of work yet to be done.

Nonetheless, with the emergence of mobile devices such as smartphones, tablets and small laptops, there has been a shift towards the normalization of CALL, as described by Bax (2003), especially concerning the physical position of computers "in every classroom, on every desk, in every bag" and this type of feedback "interpreting, evaluating, commenting, stimulating thought" (p. 21). Concerns related to infrastructure, for example, are no longer an issue. The need for computer laboratories, costly and sizable spaces to maintain a set of equipment, is overlapped by powerful devices small enough to fit in the palm of our hands. Leffa and Irala (2014) stated that with smartphones, we carry the world in our pocket. This is a significant statement, since teachers and students can nowadays easily access a plethora of information and connect with anyone in the world, making new possibilities feasible in education. In the domain of language learning, mobile devices have facilitated the access to content in the target language once restricted or difficult to find. CALL is continuously growing, and is occupying an important place in classrooms and homes.

In Brazil, there is a recurring debate over the use of smartphones in classrooms. There are teachers, principals and educational supervisors whose opinions and actions are against the use of mobile devices. On the other hand, many others support their use, recognizing the pedagogical benefits provided by these devices. Within the governmental framework, there are laws which forbid the use of mobile devices, especially smartphones; however, some Brazilian states have recently allowed schools to use them for 'pedagogical practices', which is the case of São Paulo State, where this research takes place (Balestrini et al. 2018). Despite the current scenario, efforts are being taken to promote the use of these devices in schools. In São Paulo state, for example, courses and projects within the Education Department seek to promote the use of digital technologies and mobile devices in schools (Balestrini et al. 2018). Universities also have a crucial role, since they are responsible for teacher training, as well as research that can contribute to the changing of this scenario.

#### *1.2. Virtual Reality*

The world is within our reach, not only using our hands (via devices such as smartphones) but also through our eyes, by using Google Cardboard (https://vr.google.com/cardboard), a virtual reality (VR) platform which uses smartphones and affordable headsets to promote VR experiences. The platform was launched in 2014, and since then it has generated substantial interest among media, enthusiasts and the general public. A complete description of the platform and its use will be provided in detail in Section 2. Along with Google Cardboard, other platforms, such as Oculus Rift (https://www.oculus.com/rift/), HTC Vive (https://www.vive.com/us/) and Steam VR (steamvr.com/) are also responsible for VR popularization in recent years.

However, VR is not as new as some people might think. The history of VR began in 1962 with Sensorama, the first attempt to create an immersive, multi-sensory technology. The machine was created by Morton Heilig and was able to display stereoscopic images, stereo sound and also aromas during movie playback (Tori 2010). In 1968, Ivan Sutherland created the first head-mounted display (henceforth HMD) and conducted the first immersion experiments. Nonetheless, it was during the 1980s that VR made further progress (Tori et al. 2006). Since then, this technology has reached the domains of computer sciences, entertainment and education. It is used, for example, in medical simulations, military training, automobiles and aviation.

Sherman and Craig (2003) affirm that VR is still being defined, due to the fact that this technology is in constant development and researchers, as well as users, have their own point of view. Morie (1994) declares that there are three basic ideas which define the essence of VR: immersion, interactivity and involvement. Another definition is made by Tori et al. (2006), who comprehend VR as an advanced interface for computational applications, characterized by user navigation and interaction, in real time, within a three-dimensional environment. The user can make use of multisensorial devices to act and receive feedback in the environment. Lastly, we agree with Latta and Oberg (1994), who describe VR as an advanced human interface, where real-world scenarios are simulated in a realistic way.

In education, VR has a strong potential to provide news paths and possibilities for learning. Now, students are able to cross the barriers of blackboards, books, digital screens and even physical places. They can go as deep as our DNA and see how new cells are formed, within an interactive environment. They can travel to planets with their colleagues, without the physical limitation of gravity, while the teacher explains the characteristics of our solar system. Now, it is possible to leave the freezing Artic and enjoy the beautiful Amazon River in just a matter of seconds, in 360 degrees. The possibilities are vast. As Braga (2001) states, VR represents a new dynamic and creative paradigm in education, where learners are placed at the center of the learning process. They are able to interact, modify and create, promoting active learning.

Particularly in language learning, VR can promote a high level of motivation, which will be discussed in the Results and Discussion sections, since students are able to travel virtually to places where their target language is spoken. Applications with VR support are growing every day. Some of them are specifically appropriate for people to learn languages, such as Mondly VR (www.mondly.com), but others can also be used to promote language learning. Interaction with other people in the target language, for example, can shift from digital screens to virtual social networks through apps like vTime (vtime.net) and Facebook Spaces (www.facebook.com/spaces). In this study, specifically, we have worked with 360◦ videos using a VR media player and Google Tour Creator (vr.google.com/tourcreator/), a platform where users can visit tours created by other users and also create their own tours using imagery from Google Street View or their own 360◦ photos.

Concerning studies in this field, Lin and Lan (2015) developed a survey focusing on the use of VR for language learning. The authors reviewed publications (between 2004 and 2013) in scientific journals on computer-mediated language learning. In the survey, they analyzed 29 published articles in terms of: number of VR-related publications, topics on language learning investigated, target audience, and the types of technology used in VR studies (considering the three types categorized by (Sykes et al. 2008): open social virtualities, massively multiplayer online games and synthetic immersive environments). The authors verified that only 3.6% of the articles published in the four journals were related to the VR field, but the number of works with this focus is increasing, since it is a feature that allows multimodal communication and reduce learning barriers, such as anxiety and inhibition. The most common topic is related to learners' differences in interactive communication, followed by learning tasks. The least common theme is collaborative learning. It can be observed, however, that there are only a few papers that focus on the teacher, such as his/her role in a classroom setting with VR or ways of integrating VR into pedagogical activities. The most popular tool investigated is Open Social Virtualities (OSV).

In terms of ways of integrating VR into the classroom, this study has the main objective of investigating how activities with VR can contribute to language learning, specifically French, focusing on motivation and the development of the four linguistic skills—oral comprehension/production and written comprehension/production.

#### **2. Materials and Methods**

As mentioned earlier, the central objective of this research is to understand how VR can contribute to the learning processes of individuals in a language learning class. Therefore, to achieve this objective, we adopted the methodology of Action Research, characterized as a social investigation of a particular problem, with an empirical basis, in which the researchers and participants are involved in a cooperative or participatory mode (Thiollent 1998; Fonseca 2002; Tripp 2005). This study is predominantly characterized as qualitative, since the majority of results cannot be quantified, and we seek to understand the relationship between the individuals and the VR device (Bogdan and Biklen 1999). Therefore, we also include some quantitative data and results.

The researcher also aims to gain a better understanding of the outcomes and issues of this practice, cooperatively with the participants, i.e., the teacher and the students. Furthermore, this intervention also aims to change the environment in which the research takes place, since it seeks to contribute to the linguistic development of the learners, considering the four linguistic abilities and the increase in motivation. The implementation of a new practice, i.e., the use of VR in language learning, which has been used in other areas, e.g., medical training and physics teaching, in order to investigate and develop contributions to a particular environment characterizes this research as a Practical Action Research (Tripp 2005; Grundy and Kemmis 1982).

We adopted the basic cycle of action research (Tripp 2005; Grundy and Kemmis 1982), consisting of four stages: 1. planning activities and the practice; 2. acting, which consists of implementing these activities and this practice; 3. observation and description of the results; 4. reflecting on the results and the beginning of another cycle with improvements. To support stages 3 and 4, the instruments used for observation and reflection comprise video recordings, researcher diaries, questionnaires and interviews, which are described in detail in Section 2.6.

#### *2.1. The Virtual Reality Device*

To carry out language learning activities with VR, we have chosen Google Cardboard as the VR platform due to the fact that it is easy to obtain and inexpensive. This platform can be used through three elements: 1. Cardboard Viewer; 2. Smartphone; 3. Android Application. The Cardboard Viewer, also called HMD, is the hardware used to display the VR content and features: the holder/enclosure for smartphones, a pair of special lenses and a button used to perform actions, with an application which supports the Cardboard. The smartphone needs to support Android or iOS, and must have a built-in gyroscope in order to work properly. The gyroscope is a sensor used to measure orientation and angular velocity, which enables head movement tracking. Lastly, the Android application is the software that will run the content that will be displayed in the headset.

The Cardboard original project (Figure 1a) can be easily assembled, since it is basically cardboard paper and a pair of biconvex lens. The blueprint is available to download on the Cardboard website, along with the assembly instructions. However, many companies produce headsets based on the project. For this research, we have chosen to buy a few VR BOSS Z5 headsets (Figure 1b), featuring built-in headphones, microphones and superior lenses.

**Figure 1.** Example of Virtual Reality headsets. (**a**) Google Cardboard. (**b**) VR BOSS Z5.

#### *2.2. Participants and Structure of the Activities*

The participants are students from two classes where French language is taught, in a project called *Centro de Estudo Línguas* (henceforth CEL), which takes place in Brazilian public schools in the State of São Paulo. Along with the students, their teacher also took part in the research. The French course in CEL is divided into six stages of one semester each, which totalizes three years. The first class was at the first stage, which we call F1, where 10 students participated in the research. In the other group, there were two levels in the same class, F3 and F6, consisting of 13 students. This is a recurrent problem in CEL, since it merges two different classes, even from different levels, when one of them has a low number of students. The age of the students varied from 11 to 18 years old.

Since this research is still in progress, we will present the preliminary results from the second semester of 2018, when the first activities took place. In F1, a total of 3 activities were carried out, and in F3/F6, 2 activities. It is important to highlight that, since this is an interventional study including humans, all participants gave their consent for data use before they participated in the study. The study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki, and the protocol was approved by the Ethics Committee of the Universidade Estadual Paulista "Júlio de Mesquita Filho" (CAAE: 87273518.0.0000.5400).

The activities were planned with the class teacher in order to suit the semester syllabus. Thus, they would be in accordance with the French course curriculum of CEL. At first, five activities were planned for F1 and four for F3/F6. However, as we will discuss further ahead, we could not complete all of them. The structure was divided into three parts: the first, called pre-activity, consisted of the work before using VR; the second was the central activity, in which VR was used; the third, called post-activity, included the activities after using VR. It is important to highlight that all parts are equal

in importance. We called the second one "central" since all the activities revolve around VR, but all of them were essential.

#### *2.3. Activity Plan*

The activities were planned considering the three basic ideas of VR: immersion, interactivity and involvement (Morie 1994). However, they were conducted bearing in mind an interactivity gradation from the first to the last activity. The first experience was carried out using 360◦ videos, in which interaction was limited to head tracking movements, called rotational navigation. It can be defined as navigational interactivity (Naimark 2016), given that the user can see and hear within the environment but cannot affect it in any way. The last experience increased the degree of interaction, as it consisted of using the Google Tour Creator to visit places available in Google Street View designed as tours. This means that these tours display 360◦ images with additional information as pop-ups, comprising texts, images and audios. The user can interact with these pop-ups by pressing the action button on HMD.

The pre- and post-activities were planned to apply the macro and micro strategies proposed by the Postmethod (Kumaravadivelu 2003 as the pedagogical background, as well as Active Learning Methodologies (Morán 2015; Valente 2014)). Therefore, students were put in the center of the learning process, performing activities such as: using their own mobile phones to experience VR through Cardboard; researching and presenting information to the teacher and other students; group discussions and group work; and creating their own tours in VR; among others which will be discussed further ahead.

#### *2.4. Activities with 360*◦ *Videos*

Videos in 360◦ were chosen bearing in mind that they are one of the simplest ways to experience VR through Cardboard, since players in VR are lightweight and do not require mobile devices with high processing power to run videos. This type of media is also easily available through streaming services such as Youtube (youtube.com) and Vimeo (vimeo.com). In addition, videos are a useful pedagogical tool for language learning in the classroom (Watkins and Wilkins 2011), facilitating access to cultural and linguistic content in the target language. Furthermore, with the ascension and popularization of VR, the limited playback through screens is surpassed by a stereoscopic immersion, allowing students to be involved, even if virtually, in an enhanced experience.

The chosen VR player for the activities was the VR Player Free (http://www.vrplayer.com) (Figure 2), due to its small size (2.8 mb) and simplicity. The video content was aligned with the topics of the French course, comprising countries and nationalities, dreams and desires, vacations and traditional events, among others that are described in the Section 7. Students used HMDs to experience VR videos between the pre- and post- parts of activities.

**Figure 2.** VR Player Free (VIMERSIV, Inc., Terrebonne, QC, Canada, www.vrplayer.com) playback screen.

#### *2.5. Activities with Virtual Tours*

For these activities, the Google Tour Creator was chosen due to its user-friendly interface, high compatibility through operating systems and large amount of available content, since it is connected to Google Street View, allowing the use of 360◦ images of many places around the globe. Regarding high compatibility, this is a result of its technology which enables tours to be played on Internet browsers, therefore allowing users from different operating systems, on mobile and desktops, to access the content.

Virtual tours created by the researcher were introduced in activity number 2 of F1. Previously, past activities only supported rotational navigation. However, the Google Tour Creator supports an increased interaction and feedback, since users can activate an action button to interact with the environment through pop-ups, called points of interest, containing text, images and audio, presented in Figure 3. In activity 2 (F1), students experienced a virtual tour with two scenes in Paris: the Eiffel Tower and the Louvre Museum outdoors.

(**a**) (**b**)

**Figure 3.** Google Tour Creator (Google LLC, Mountain View, CA, USA, vr.google.com/tourcreator) visualization screen of a student created tour: (**a**) Desktop internet browser screen; (**b**) Smartphone internet browser screen in VR mode.

In the next activity, number 3 (F1), the students created their own virtual tours based on their dreams and desires. They used the school computer laboratory to create their tours, while using online tools, such as dictionaries and wikis, to search for information to complete the task. Then, in the next part of the activity, they published their own virtual tours in VR using the HMDs online, and presented them to the teacher and other colleagues.

#### *2.6. Data Collection*

The activities with VR began in early September 2018 and continued through early December 2018. A total of 5 activities were completed, 3 in F1 and 2 in F2. However, all the activities lasted more than one class to be completed, totalizing 12 meetings, due to issues related to course planning and availability to carry out the activities in classes, since we avoided interference in the semester progress. It is also important to highlight that at the beginning of the research we only had 1 HMD, an issue that was later solved by purchasing 4 HDMs.

For data collection, we recorded the activities on video, and asked students and teachers to fill in questionnaires for each activity and also a final questionnaire. We also interviewed students and the teacher (nonetheless, we were not able to distribute the final questionnaire to F1, totalizing 6 students). Therefore, the teacher answered 5 questionnaires, the researcher conducted 13 interviews with students, and he also kept diaries where he noted down observations and descriptions of each activity.

Given that we followed the basic cycle of action research during each activity, improvements to questionnaires were made during the reflection stage of the cycle. As we will present general results, we considered only the final questionnaires of each class and the most relevant questions and answers

(see Section 7 for the full questionnaires). For multiple choice questions, we used the Likert scale to gather information from students. We also included free text questions. Questions asked during interviews are described in Section 7—Common questionnaire questions.

#### **3. Results**

This section presents a summary of the data from the questionnaires, diaries, interviews and video recordings. It is important to highlight that this study is still in progress and the completion of activities is planned for June 2019, thus we will present preliminary results from the first stage that took place in the second semester of 2018. It is also important to make clear that, for this paper, we decided to present a general view of the results, consequently not discussing in detail each activity and each collected datum.

#### *3.1. Teacher*

The teacher totally agreed that the activities carried out during the semester contributed to the lessons and the learning process of the students, highlighting that they aroused greater interest in the French classes, drawing students' attention and allowing them to immerse themselves in an unknown environment. She also emphasized that students were able to act as agents in their own learning, especially in the tour creation activities, not being merely spectators.

Regarding the development of the four linguistic competences, she pointed out that all of them were equally covered and well developed. The tasks with video playbacks, for example, greatly contributed to their oral comprehension, as students could listen to people in a virtual environment, increasing their attention to oral segments of speech. Group discussions after the video playbacks also contributed to their oral production, as well as the tour creation activity, since students had to record audio tracks to present some information in their virtual tours as a narration.

The teacher also noted that written competence was greatly improved through the production of texts related to the VR activities. She declared that they felt more motivated to produce these texts, and most subjects studied in lessons were in use during these activities, e.g., vocabulary, verb conjugations and verb tenses. Written comprehension was considered through the activities where students had to search for more information about some places seen in a virtual environment, e.g., Martinique and Nigeria.

Concerning motivation, she affirmed that it was especially taken into account while using VR, since the process of learning could go beyond the traditional resources commonly used in classes. She also stressed that these resources, i.e., text, audio, images and video, could even be used simultaneously during the activities. She pointed out the fact that by using VR, students could get closer to the culture of their target language, which is sometimes far away from their realities. This was an important motivation factor, since students were taken away from their physical space and could experience a different reality, even if only virtually.

She also stated that students showed better progress during the lessons, when compared to another class at the same level. She argued that in classes at F1 level, students normally do not practice oral production. However, when it was induced in activities with VR, students were more engaged and completed the activities without the usual resistance found in students at this level. In F3/F6, the teacher suggested an improvement in written production and comprehension, since they were engaged in writing activities after watching VR videos.

#### *3.2. Students from F3*/*F6*

A total of seven students answered this questionnaire. For the question "Did you like the activities carried out with VR during the semester", 71% of the students answered, "Totally agree", while 29% chose "Agree". The exact same percentage applies to the question "Do you believe that the activities contributed to the retention of the content worked in lessons?" and "Would you like to do more

activities with VR?". Regarding the question "Did you feel motivated during the activities carried out through the semester", 57.1% of the students answered "Totally agree", while 42.9% chose "Agree".

Regarding the questions related to the four linguistic competences, we asked the students to evaluate, on a scale from 1 to 5, how much the activities with VR were effective in the development of a particular competence, considering their experience during the semester. The following charts represent (Figures 4 and 5) the score attributed to each competence.

**Figure 4.** Comprehension competences chart of F3/F6 students.

**Figure 5.** Production competences chart of F3/F6 students.

In open-ended questions, all students affirmed that they believe that the activities with VR can help with learning foreign languages, and all of them want to carry on with the activities. Only one student experienced discomfort during the activities with VR.

#### *3.3. Students from F1*

A total of five students answered the questionnaire. For the questions "Did you like the activities carried out with VR during the semester" and "Do you believe that the activities contributed to the retention of the content worked in lessons?", 100% of the students totally agreed. For the question "Did you feel motivated during the activities?", 60% answered "Totally agree", while 40% chose "Agree".

Students from F1 also answered a question about their sense of immersion during the last activity, in which 75% of students attributed a score of 4 and 25% a score of 5. As for the four linguistic competences, when asked to give a score from 1 to 5, most students attributed 4 and 5 to the effectiveness of linguistic production and comprehension competences during the activities with VR.

In the answers of open-ended questions, students considered that VR can help with the learning of foreign languages, and some students asked for more activities with VR, highlighting a great contribution to their comprehension of the French language and their understanding of other cultures. None experienced discomfort during the activities and when using HMDs.

#### **4. Discussion**

The preliminary results of this study show that the utilization of VR, especially through the Cardboard platform, can be a powerful tool in language learning. Firstly, due to the fact that Cardboard requires only a supported smartphone and a cheap headset, the promotion of MALL and digital technology in classrooms and schools can be expanded. The issues regarding spending a considerable amount of money to buy computers, build laboratories and purchase other expensive equipment can be solved by using smartphones, representing, as we discussed in the Introduction, a step towards the normalization phase of computers in language learning (Bax 2003; Chambers and Bax 2006; Paiva 2015).

In addition, as a result of this promotion, the problem concerning smartphones in Brazil (Balestrini et al. 2018) can also move a step further toward a better understanding and acceptability in Brazilian schools. By using VR with the Cardboard platform, and consequently using smartphones, we have fertile ground to promote the idea that with smartphones, we can carry the world in our pockets (Leffa and Irala 2014). For this reason, teachers and educational administrators are able to perceive it as a useful tool, in contrast to the idea of having a negative effect, which is found in many Brazilian schools.

The development of active learning was also observed during the activities with VR. As the teacher stated, the learners could act as agents in their own learning through activities such as virtual tour creation, group work and discussions. Learners were encouraged to leave their comfort zone, i.e., their desks and their traditional learning methodologies, and were able to experience new places and cultures through VR and the related activities. Therefore, learners were in the center of learning processes, not being merely spectators, but acting dynamically in the classroom.

The harmony of the activities with the Postmethod principles (Kumaravadivelu 2003), in terms of the autonomy of teacher and learners, raising social consciousness, integrating linguistic skills, maximizing learning opportunities, and contextualizing linguistic inputs were all observed while carrying out the activities. This supports the idea that digital information and communications technology (DICT) contributes to effective language learning (Valente 2014) in the contemporary context.

Regarding the four linguistic skills, the teacher and the students recognized that the activities were notably positive in their development. As the teacher stated, all the four skills were equally well considered during the activities. Students were encouraged to work even with the those who were less developed in the context of CEL, i.e., oral production and oral comprehension.

Motivation, however, was the salient point in all the activities. The teacher and the researcher observed that all the students were highly motivated before, during and after using VR. At first, as they declared in the interviews and questionnaires, it was the innovative aspect of this technology that attracted them. Throughout the activities, they demonstrated great interest and enjoyment when watching the videos and interacting with the tours, which were presented in the textbook or mentioned during lessons.

Subsequently, better engagement was observed, resulting in more interest regarding lessons, the French language and francophone culture. We understand these consequences as a fostering of intrinsic motivation (Brown 1990; Dörnyei 1994), where the possibilities brought by VR awaken natural curiosity concerning the target language and culture, promoting enjoyable learning.

Despite the results, we recognize that further investigations related to the development of linguistic skills within the virtual environment still need to be made. This study considered the broader context of the pre-activities and post-activities, thus not investigating the virtual environment itself at a deeper level. Language learning activities in virtual spaces where the students get together is possible; however, it is still restricted to factors such as smartphones with higher processing power and a good internet connection.

#### **5. Limitations of the Study**

Since this study is still in progress, there are some limitations. Firstly, more activities need to be conducted considering the final feedback given by the teacher and the students, as well as the researcher's observations. A new set of activities can contribute to a new Action Research cycle, allowing more consistent results and discussion.

The fact that this study is being conducted in a specific school setting, with a low number of students, can also be taken as a limitation. However, it demonstrates a good starting point for future research on this subject, allowing for important considerations when using VR in language learning. Other classes and groups of students who did not use the technology were initially considered as a means of comparison. Nonetheless, due to the low number of students, the complexity of the language learning process, which comprehends various variables (Almeida Filho 2007) and, lastly, the impossibility to follow other classes during this first cycle of the research, we chose not to make comparisons.

During the activities, the researcher also had limitations concerning the number of devices. As we said, initially, only one HMD and one smartphone were used. Later, more devices were acquired, allowing a better development of the activities. Nevertheless, the researcher is still depending on the students' smartphones in order to complete the activities. Even with a higher number of HMDs (a total of five), sometimes only some of them were used because students did not have compatible smartphones available. This limitation shows that the use of VR can still be difficult in some contexts, especially those whose financial support is restricted.

#### **6. Conclusions**

The recent popularization of VR represents a noticeable phenomenon, especially with the creation of the low-cost VR platform Google Cardboard. In education, VR can be considered as a powerful tool to enhance learning in different fields of knowledge. Previously used only in restricted fields, e.g., medical simulation and aviation training, now we observe an expansion of possibilities, as new VR devices and applications are being created and developed in great numbers, allowing more access at lower costs, if we compare them to previous VR devices. Considering tools such as Google Tour Creator and the A-frame (https://aframe.io), a web framework for developing VR applications, people can easily create VR experiences and share them with others.

There are many possibilities regarding language learning. This study mainly focused on using VR as an integration into pedagogical activities; however, as Lin and Lan (2015) presented, there are other ways to explore the potential of this technology. New VR tools and applications are being developed with a focus on language learning, for example, Mondly VR (www.mondly.com). Probably, in the near future, educators will have a good set of tools to choose from, and whether focused on language learning or not they will still be of great use in this field. Nevertheless, especially in the Brazilian educational context, we still need to promote the use of educational technology in schools, particularly using smartphones, which is proving to be a great tool in educational contexts.

This study has shown some results concerning the motivation and development of four linguistic abilities in language learning using VR. However, we still need to plan and carry out more activities with more students in different educational contexts, also considering a longer period of time. Then, we will have consistent results and a better understanding of how this technology can contribute to language learning. Next semester we intend to use the feedback given by the students, the teacher and the researcher's observations to design more activities using VR. We also intend to review the methodological procedures to improve data collection and the development of the activities.

Finally, with the advancement of this study, we hope to encourage educators and researchers to use VR in language teaching and learning, demonstrating the capabilities of this device in this field, as well as the needs and demands for academic research on this subject. We also aim to promote the use of educational technology in Brazilian schools, by disseminating the results of this study.

#### **7. Common Questionnaire Questions**

These questions were present in all questionnaires. Some questionnaires had dedicated questions to cover specific activities. We decided to present only common questionnaire questions since we do not have full results of the activities presented on this paper.


**Author Contributions:** Writing–original draft, F.A.N.; Writing–review & editing, C.C.d.F.R.

**Funding:** This research was funded by Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES), grant number 0487 (PROEX).

**Conflicts of Interest:** The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

#### **References**

Almeida Filho, J. 2007. C. P. de Linguística Aplicada-ensino de línguas e comunicação, 2nd ed.Campinas: Pontes. Balestrini, Débora C. S., Cibele Cecílio de Faria Rozenfeld, and Gabriela Marques-Schäfer. 2018. A utilização

de dispositivos móveis na prática de sala de aula da Educação Básica pela perspectiva de professores e professores/coordenadores. In *Ensino de Línguas e Tecnologias Móveis: políticas públicas, conceitos, pesquisas e práticas em foco*, 1st ed. Edited by G. Marques-Schäfer and C. Rozenfeld. São Paulo: Edições Hipótese, vol. 1, pp. 52–76. ISBN 978-85-924379-1-6.


Fonseca, J. J. S. 2002. *Metodologia da Pesquisa Científica*. Fortaleza: UEC, Apostila.


© 2019 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

## *Communication* **Coptic Language Learning and Social Media**

#### **D. Nicole Deschene**

Department of Teaching and Learning, New York University, New York, NY 10003, USA; nicole.deschene@nyu.edu

Received: 1 August 2019; Accepted: 9 September 2019; Published: 11 September 2019

**Abstract:** This study explored the potential of using the Internet, including existing social media platforms, for Coptic language learning. Through global exposure, endangered language maintenance and revitalization efforts may benefit from having a presence on social media. The researcher created Coptic language learning material, social media accounts on multiple platforms, and a website. Data were collected through a survey with questions focused on social media users' background and experience with the Coptic language learning material. In addition to the survey, analytics from the social media and website platforms were documented. The results indicated that social media provided a global audience and the Coptic language learning material blended into survey respondents' daily lives with positive acceptance.

**Keywords:** Coptic; social media; language learning; endangered language; language revitalization; language maintenance

#### **1. Introduction**

The rapid development of mobile technology continually creates new opportunities for language learning. These new opportunities include novel approaches to language education as well as platforms for exposure to endangered languages (Cunliffe 2007). There are 7111 languages in the world (Eberhard et al. 2019) and the majority of languages are endangered (Krauss 2007). Languages can be classified as extinct if speakers no longer exist or, on the other end of the spectrum, safe if the number of speakers is expected to grow. In between extinction and safety, there are several degrees of endangerment (Krauss 2007). Coptic, a language of Egyptian origin, associated with the Coptic Orthodox Church (Takla 2014), is among the languages that are classified as severely endangered, dormant, or even extinct (Eberhard et al. 2019). What can be done to support and protect such endangered languages and prevent their loss? Crystal (Crystal 2014) theorized factors that can strengthen the position of endangered languages; among them is the use of electronic technology. The study presented here explores how the affordances of technology can be engaged as a resource to restore and develop the Coptic language.

#### **2. Background**

Motivated individuals and communities have served as actors for language revitalization and maintenance efforts. They employ various strategies to strengthen the position of an endangered language, such as the establishment of immersion schools. This approach has been examined for the Hawaiian (Warner 2001), Ojibwe, and Maori languages ( ¯ Hermes and Kawai'ae'a 2014), among others. Although the literature largely focuses on revitalization efforts that are still in progress, research has reviewed past success of similar efforts. For example, an exemplary case of language revitalization is that of Hebrew. Over the course of approximately 25 years, starting at the end of the nineteenth century, the position of Hebrew strengthened dramatically through a persistent effort. This success can partly be attributed to the consistent and centuries-long use of Hebrew as a religious language for Jewish prayer (Spolsky 1995).

Recently, ongoing language revitalization efforts have been incorporating electronic technology as a tool for language learning outside of traditional education settings. The language learning application Duolingo currently offers 33 language courses for English speakers, including several endangered languages. In addition to the 21.8 million learners of Spanish, Duolingo also claims to have 173 thousand learners of Navajo, 286 thousand learners of Hawaiian, and 336 thousand learners of Welsh (Duolingo n.d.). Still, mainstream language learning technology such as Duolingo has not accommodated the needs of all endangered language learners. Efforts, such as that of Ojibwe, have found it necessary to create their own language learning material. Hermes and King (2013) examined the use of a computer software program among families of beginner level Ojibwe language learners. The software included videos, flash cards, games, exercises, and quizzes. The participants consistently used the software over a period of eight weeks by dedicating time to use it each day. The results from the study suggested that the consistent use of the software provided the adult participants in particular with the confidence and skills that they needed to start using the language.

More specifically within electronic technology, research suggests that the Internet has been used for endangered language learning through various websites and applications. Although there are people without access to the Internet, the Internet provides equality for communities that may not be able to afford traditional sources of media (Crystal 2014) and do have access to the Internet. For example, Jones (2015) investigated the use of digital technology for Welsh language learning. All of the participants in Jones' study reported using the Internet in various ways to learn Welsh. They watched YouTube videos, read Facebook and blog posts, wrote emails, participated in Skype conversations, created iTunes U flash cards, and used Google Translate. They also used language learning resources and viewed Welsh television programs on British broadcast websites.

#### *2.1. Social Media*

Social media is potentially effective because it is ubiquitous and manageable. It incorporates feeds that provide mobile device users with small segments of information. Common practice of mobile social media involves moving through a feed while absorbing information actively or passively. The Pew Research Center reported that within the United States, 74% of Facebook users, 63% of Snapchat users, 60% of Instagram users, 46% of Twitter users, and 45% of YouTube users access the platforms at least once a day (Smith and Anderson 2018). Jones et al. (2013) investigated the use of Twitter among Welsh speakers. The results indicated that the majority of participants expected to read and write in Welsh when they signed up for a Twitter account and chose to follow other Twitter accounts based on their use of Welsh. They considered Twitter to be an easy platform to frequently produce and engage with Welsh content as well as connect with other Welsh speakers.

Thus, through global exposure, endangered language maintenance and revitalization efforts can benefit from having a presence on social media. Stern (2017) explored the role of Facebook in Balinese revitalization efforts by administrators and members of a Facebook group. Although the group page was visible to the public, only members of the group could post. The members of the group, mostly teenagers and young adults, posted a variety of content in Balinese, but not necessarily about the Balinese language. The results suggested that the presence of Balinese on Facebook transcended time and space by reaching an international audience that could interact continuously. Similarly, Cru (2015) explored the role of Facebook in Yucatec Maya revitalization efforts. The results indicated that youth encouraged the use of Yucatec Maya by posting in the language. Other Facebook users engaged with the posts by reading and replying to them, creating a written dialogue. Although most of the post replies indicated that users had some degree of proficiency in the language, one example indicated that a Facebook user was not proficient enough in the language to use it but was interested in learning it. The results suggested that the presence of Yucatec Maya on Facebook could reach speakers and learners on a global level and appeal to youth because of the relevance of Facebook in their modern lives.

#### *2.2. Coptic Language*

The present study explored the presence of social media specifically dedicated to Coptic language learning. Coptic is an indigenous language of Egypt and a member of the Afroasiatic language family. It is the last stage of the Ancient Egyptian language, which dates back to 3000 BC. The writing systems of the Egyptian language evolved from the hieroglyphic system to Hieratic, and then Demotic (Loprieno and Müller 2012). By the third century BC, the Egyptian writing system further evolved to incorporate Greek, a dominant language at the time, and was henceforth referred to as Coptic.

Coptic was once the majority language in Egypt with different regional dialects, but it slowly became a minority language (Ishaq 1991). Although empirical research on the vitality of the Coptic language has yet to be conducted, organizations still estimate the vitality of the language. For example, UNESCO currently classifies the Coptic language as extinct (Moseley 2010) based on their language vitality and endangerment framework. Extinct is the highest degree of endangerment within this framework and implies that there are no speakers left (Brenzinger et al. 2003). Another organization, SIL International, recently updated their classification of Coptic based on a different framework, the Expanded Graded Intergenerational Disruption Scale. Coptic was previously classified as dormant, which is the last level of endangerment before extinct. A dormant language is defined as only being used symbolically for ethnic identity (Simons and Fennig 2018). The current classification of Coptic was downgraded to second language only, which is defined as no longer being a heritage language of an ethnic community (Eberhard et al. 2019). This updated classification may not accurately depict the vitality of the language, including one of its dialects, Bohairic.

Despite Coptic language loss, the Coptic dialect, Bohairic, has been used continuously within the Coptic Orthodox Church. Bohairic Coptic has survived for centuries in a diglossic context (Ishaq 1991) along with Arabic. Priests, deacons, and parishioners continue to perform Coptic hymns during church services. These hymns have been performed throughout the history of the Coptic Orthodox Church (Ramzy 2013). Although priests and deacons can use other languages in religious services, they often choose to use Coptic in order to maintain the rhythmic and melodic musical features that incorporate the syllabic features of the Coptic language (Ragheb 2018). Furthermore, Coptic language education has continued through classes organized by churches and through books published by churches (Younan 2005).

In the 1960s, the Coptic diaspora started growing in North America, Europe, and Australia (Botros 2006). Through migration, the use of the Coptic language expanded beyond the borders of Egypt. Churches in the diaspora mount screens that display the text of the liturgy in real time in three languages side-by-side, Arabic, Coptic, and English (Saad 2010). Forms of electronic media, such as satellite television broadcasting, Internet streaming, mobile applications, and social network platforms, have connected Copts throughout the diaspora as well as Copts in Egypt. Electronic media has created a Coptic community that is not separated or divided by territorial borderlines (Westbrook and Saad 2017). Although the literature highlights the use of electronic media within the Coptic community, questions still remain about the use of electronic media for Coptic language learning.

#### *2.3. Research Questions*

The researcher developed digital resources for learners of Coptic and made them available to the public via the Internet. The research questions that this study addresses are:


#### **3. Materials and Methods**

The researcher created Coptic language learning material, social media accounts on multiple platforms, and a website. The social media accounts were public and were created on Facebook, Instagram, and Twitter. The posts on the social media accounts were consistent with each other and anyone could view posts, regardless of whether they had an account or not, and regardless of whether or not they were followers of the account. The website was created using WordPress and included all of the content posted on the social media accounts as well as additional resources. Links to the website were included on the social media accounts.

The language learning materials that were posted first consisted of short videos for each Coptic phoneme-grapheme correspondence. There are 31 letters and 1 number in the Coptic alphabet. The majority of the letters in the Coptic alphabet are Greek letters. However, 7 of the letters are Demotic, which is the previous writing system for the spoken Coptic language (Ishaq 1991). Phoneme-grapheme correspondence was chosen as the focus of the initial language learning materials because decoding is a necessary skill in reading (Gough and Tunmer 1986). A video was created for each letter with a format that consisted of an image of the lowercase letter with a voice recording of the letter name and letter sound, followed by the uppercase letter with a repeat of the voice recording of the letter name and letter sound (see Figure 1). Research has shown that learning letter names is beneficial for learning letter sounds and reading (Foulin 2005). Videos were also created for letter combinations that corresponded with different sounds.

**Figure 1.** Video frames of the first letter of the Coptic alphabet. (**a**) Lowercase; (**b**) Uppercase.

In 2018, the first 38 videos were posted one at a time, every day, and were organically promoted mostly through the use of hashtags (i.e., #coptic). Hashtags allow social media users to share and discover content based on phrases or words that describe the content. A short description accompanied each video post. Although the descriptions were in English, they could be translated into other languages using the platforms' translation tools. The description for the first video was *This is the name and sound of the first letter of the Coptic alphabet*.

A survey was developed, and then created on Qualtrics, to collect information from social media users. Usability tests and retrospective think-alouds were conducted in order to pretest the survey (Groves et al. 2009). The survey had a total of 27 questions, including sub questions, focused on social media users' background and experience with the Coptic language learning material. The items included multiple choice, Likert scale, and short open-ended responses (see Appendix A). The survey was anonymous and conducted in English. Immediately after the first 38 videos were posted, requests to participate in the anonymous survey were posted. The survey was only active for one week. The timing of the survey was designed to increase the accuracy of the respondents' memory recall on questions such as, *How often did the videos appear in your social media feed?* All respondents provided their informed consent before completing the survey. All of the open-ended responses were manually coded by the researcher and then organized into themes that emerged from the data (Saldaña 2016).

In addition to the survey, web analytics from the social media accounts and the website were documented. This included the number of video views on each of the social media accounts, the number of visitors and the number of page views on the website, as well as the country location of the visitors on the website. This study, IRB-FY2018-2096, was approved by the author's University Committee on Activities Involving Human Subjects.

#### **4. Results**

#### *4.1. Survey*

During the one-week time frame that the survey was active, 27 respondents submitted the survey. However, one respondent's survey was deleted because it was incomplete, leaving a total of 26 respondents. Based on the small sample size, descriptive statistics were used to report on the quantitative data collected from this group of social media users.

#### 4.1.1. Respondent Demographics

The results from the background questions indicated that the respondents' average age was 28.5 years (S.D. = 9). They lived in the United States, Australia, Canada, and Italy. They were born in the United States, Egypt, Australia, Canada, Italy, and Germany.

#### 4.1.2. Respondent Language Background

The respondents reported having some degree of proficiency in languages including English, Arabic, Spanish, French, German, and Italian, which all have different writing systems than Coptic. Additionally, 12 of the respondents reported having some degree of proficiency in Coptic and ranked their proficiency in speaking, listening, reading, and writing on a scale of 0 to 5, with 5 being described as fluent. Their average self-reported proficiency in speaking was 1.67 (S.D. = 1.03), listening was 1.92 (S.D. = 1.08), reading was 2.25 (S.D. = 1.36), and writing was 0.75 (S.D. = 0.75).

Only 10 of the respondents had taken a Coptic language class in the past and they all reported that their Coptic language class was held at a church. Exactly half of the respondents reported that they had tried to teach themselves Coptic. As illustrated by the sampling of responses in Table 1, some described their challenging experience teaching themselves Coptic, whereas others described the strategies that they used to teach themselves the language.


**Table 1.** Description of experience teaching oneself the Coptic language.

When asked why they were interested in learning the Coptic language, their reasons, which are listed in Table 2, included comprehension of and participation in worship, the ability to read ancient manuscripts, preservation of the Coptic heritage and language, as well as the historical value of the language.


**Table 2.** Source of interest for learning the Coptic language.

#### 4.1.3. Respondent Experience with the Coptic Language Learning Material

The results from the questions that focused on their experience with the Coptic language learning material indicated that many of the respondents used more than one type of device and more than one type of platform to view the videos. Twenty-five of the respondents used a smartphone to view the videos, 9 used a laptop, 3 used a tablet, and 3 used a desktop. Eighteen viewed the videos on Instagram, 8 viewed the videos on Facebook, 4 viewed the videos on Twitter, and 3 viewed the videos on the website. As shown in Figure 2, twelve reported that the videos appeared in their social media feed once a day, 11 reported that they appeared once every few days, 2 reported that that they appeared more than once a day, and only 1 reported that they never appeared in their social media feed. Fifteen viewed the videos 1 time and 11 viewed the videos 2–5 times. Eight reported that they always had sound on while viewing the videos, 11 had sound on most of the time, 2 had sound on about half the time, and 5 had sound on sometimes.

**Figure 2.** Frequency of video appearance on social media feed.

Exactly half of the respondents reported that the content helped them learn letter names, 16 reported that it helped them learn letter sounds, 9 reported that it helped them learn letter combination sounds, and 5 reported that it helped them find other Coptic language learning resources. Twenty-four reported that they were interested in continuing to learn Coptic, whereas only 2 reported that they were unsure if they would continue to learn Coptic, and none of the respondents reported that they were not interested in continuing to learn.

In response to an open ended question that asked the respondents to provide additional information about their experience, they reported that, "It was great, I've never had a resource for learning another language on social media"; "Very useful to understand the language and know how it sounds"; "Videos are straightforward and reliably the same high quality"; It is not my first exposure to the Coptic language so I mostly viewed it to make sure that what I had previously learned was the same as what was on this site"; "Personally need more usage examples and context to learn".

#### *4.2. Web Analytics*

After the social media accounts and the website were launched, web analytics were documented. At the time of the survey administration, the website had a total of 50 visitors and 125 page views. The country locations of the website visitors included the United States, Canada, the United Kingdom, Egypt, Australia, and Russia. One year later, the website had accumulated a total of 249 visitors and 847 page views. The website pages that contain the phoneme-grapheme correspondence videos accumulated a total of 107 views. The country locations of the website visitors included the addition of Germany, France, China, Mexico, Italy, Indonesia, Ireland, Japan, Mongolia, Seychelles, the United Arab Emirates, and Sweden. Figure 3 shows a world map of the country locations of the website visitors. Visitors clicked on the website link 124 times through the Facebook, Instagram, and Twitter accounts, as well as 34 times through search engine results from Google, Yahoo, and Bing.

**Figure 3.** World map of website visitor country locations.

The number of views for each of the first 38 videos posted on Facebook, Instagram, and Twitter were added together as the total number of views per video. The video views were added together for this initial stage of the research, as the comparison of the different social media platforms would be premature at this stage. One year after the 38th video was posted, the combined total number of video views was 3049. The average number of views per video was 80.24 (S.D. = 38.52) and the range of the total number of views per video was 31 to 241. Figure 4 shows a quadratic regression model of the total number of views per video and the order that the videos were posted. The video that was viewed the most was the first video that was posted and the video that was viewed the least was the sixteenth video that was posted.

**Figure 4.** Quadratic regression model of total video views and video post order.

#### **5. Discussion**

#### *5.1. Research Question 1*

The results from the survey background questions, as well as the website analytics, address the first research question by describing the people who used Coptic language learning material made available on the Internet. Overall, the survey respondents and the website visitors were an international group that were located in the United States, Canada, the United Kingdom, Egypt, Australia, Russia, Germany, France, China, Mexico, Italy, Indonesia, Ireland, Japan, Mongolia, Seychelles, the United Arab Emirates, and Sweden. This finding aligns with the literature that describes the Coptic diaspora having started in North America, Europe, and Australia (Botros 2006). This finding also supports suggestions in the literature that the Internet provides endangered language revitalization and maintenance efforts with a global audience (Cru 2015; Stern 2017). Considering the overall low cost of this effort, and that the content was mostly promoted organically through the use of hashtags within a short period of time, the results suggest that the Coptic language learning material developed a presence on the Internet. However, it may be beneficial for future efforts to promote websites and social media accounts more actively if the goal is to create a wider presence.

All of the survey respondents that indicated that they had taken a Coptic language class in the past reported that the classes were held at a church. This supports the notion that Coptic language education has continued through classes organized by churches (Younan 2005). Almost half of the survey respondents reported that they had some degree of proficiency in Coptic. However, their average self-reported proficiency levels in speaking, listening, reading, and writing were low. This may suggest that language learning material on social media may be especially useful for beginners. This could also suggest that posting beginner level language learning material on social media may attract beginner learners. Half of the respondents reported that they had tried to teach themselves the Coptic language and explained the challenges they experienced as well as the techniques they used. Although it is common for people to teach themselves a language, the results suggest that Coptic language learners may not have the variety of self-teaching resources that other language learners have (Duolingo n.d.).

Several of the survey respondents attributed their interest in learning the Coptic language to reasons related to the preservation of their Coptic heritage. This contradicts the current classification of Coptic in the literature. SIL International classifies Coptic as second language only, which is defined as no longer being a heritage language of an ethnic community (Eberhard et al. 2019). Further research could determine the vitality of the Coptic language and could update classifications if necessary.

#### *5.2. Research Question 2*

Results from the survey address the second research question by describing people's experience using the Coptic language learning material made available on the Internet. The Coptic language learning material blended into the respondents' daily lives with positive acceptance. More than half of them reported that posts appeared in their social media news feed at least once a day. This suggests that the language learning material was often delivered to the learner without requiring the learner to actively seek it. As reviewed in the literature, the development of confidence and skills in the language learning process benefits from consistency (Hermes and King 2013), which further supports the important role that social media can have in learning any language.

Almost all of the respondents reported that they used a smartphone to access the language learning material, which suggests that social media users may be mobile. The development of language learning material for social media should take mobility into consideration. One of the respondents commented on the high quality and straightforwardness of the videos. Although the language learning material was provided to the public informally and without financial cost, it was still designed purposefully and created carefully. Another respondent commented on the usefulness of knowing how the language sounds. Furthermore, all of the respondents indicated that they had the sound on while watching the videos at least sometimes and more than half indicated that they had the sound on at least most of the time. The availability of audio is particularly salient for learners of an endangered language because access to the spoken language may be limited.

#### *5.3. Research Question 3*

Results from the web analytics address the third research question by quantifying the exposure of the Coptic language learning material based on social media video views, website page views, and website visitors. Over the timespan of one year, the videos posted on social media accumulated a total of over three thousand views and more than two hundred people visited the website. This supports the theory that electronic technology, including the Internet, has the potential to help strengthen the position of endangered languages (Crystal 2014).

A possible explanation for the range between the video with the most views and the video with the least views could be the order that they were posted. Social media users that discovered the social media accounts may have viewed the most recent posts and may also have been interested in viewing the earliest posts. However, social media users that were actually using the language learning material may have viewed all of the posts, including those in the middle. The content of the videos was limited to phoneme-grapheme correspondences, which may not have been useful for every social media user that discovered the accounts. Although decoding is a necessary skill in reading (Gough and Tunmer 1986), it is a beginner level skill that more proficient language learners may already have.

It should be expected that social media users have different needs based on their varying levels of proficiency. This is similar to what was reviewed in the literature. The majority of the members of a Yucatec Maya Facebook page were proficient enough to communicate with each other. However, one member was interested but was not proficient enough to join the conversation (Cru 2015). Future efforts should determine what content would be most useful but not be discouraged by low engagement. Older content can be reposted if it is determined that it needs more exposure. Furthermore, future research could examine the relationship between social media post engagement and post order over a longer period of time and with a variety of content.

#### **6. Conclusions**

This study must be considered purely exploratory. The sample was self-selected and may not be representative of the larger population with an interest in learning Coptic. Moreover, promotion was limited and time for the project was constrained. Although generalizations cannot be made from the small self-selected sample size, the results are still promising and can guide future research related to the Coptic language, as well as other endangered languages.

Future research should focus on the vitality of the Coptic language. The current classification of the language did not align with the survey respondents' comments regarding its role as a heritage language. Therefore, it should be determined if the position of the language is different than what is depicted in the literature. Furthermore, the vitality of Coptic, as well as other endangered languages, should be measured on more than one occasion, and over time, to determine if revitalization and maintenance efforts are effective in improving the position of the language.

The use of existing platforms, such as social media, for language learning should continue to be examined. The majority of the survey respondents in this study reported that they learned from the posts and were interested in continuing to learn the Coptic language. Future research could focus on the effectiveness of learning an endangered language through social media through longitudinal studies.

In addition to providing direction for future research, the implications of global exposure should be promising for endangered language efforts. The survey respondents and the website visitors in this study were people with Internet access that were located all over the world. A global audience is essential for endangered language exposure since diasporas take their languages outside of their indigenous boundaries.

**Funding:** This research received no external funding.

**Acknowledgments:** The author thanks the survey respondents for their participation in this study, as well as Miriam Eisenstein Ebsworth for her feedback and guidance.

**Conflicts of Interest:** The author declares no conflict of interest.

#### **Appendix A Survey**





6.1. At what age did you start attending a Coptic Orthodox church?




7.1. Where have you taken Coptic language classes? Select all that apply.






18. Are you interested in continuing to learn Coptic?


19. What are you interested in learning? Select all that apply.


20. Provide any additional information about your experience using Coptic Literacy.

#### **References**

Botros, Ghada. 2006. Religious identity as an historical narrative: Coptic Orthodox immigrant churches and the representation of history. *Journal of Historical Sociology* 19: 174–201. [CrossRef]


Smith, Aaron, and Monica Anderson. 2018. *Social Media Use in 2018*. Washington: Pew Research Center.


© 2019 by the author. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
