*4.1. AGI Initiatives*

Target users of the AGI initiatives and the key challenges they seek to address are reflected in the distribution of where implementation occurred (see Table 1 for name and summary description of each initiative). Initiatives were concentrated in the global south, particularly south Asia, and east/west Africa. India and Kenya were highlighted as individual countries with the highest numbers of initiatives reviewed. Initiatives largely targeted smallholder farmers and rural communities (*n* = 18). Some AGI initiatives specifically targeted women farmers (Tigo Kilimo), farmers with low education levels (Tigo Kilimo), fishing households (Radio Monsoon), and progressive farmers more receptive to new technologies and practices (IFFCO Kisan Agriculture App). These target user groups are synonymous with those of more traditional approaches to agricultural extension and advisory services [3]. Other target users included scientists (e.g., PMDRRLK), governments (Smartscape), the agriculture extension community (WATMIS), NGOs and conservation organisations (Agriculture Monitoring System; Smartscape; LandCaRe DSS), risk managemen<sup>t</sup> agencies (PMDRRLK), and the private sector (Agriculture Monitoring System).

Almost all initiatives adopted a top-down approach (*n* = 23), with only a few employing bottom-up practices (Digital Green, PMDRRLK and CROPROTECT). Greater emphasis was on communicating AGI to farmers, or providing a service that farmers can receive information from, rather than working with farmers to utilise AGI to support livelihoods. Of the initiatives adopting a bottom-up approach, Digital Green identified 'champions' from a local community to film and edit videos on new farming practices and topics, such as health (outputs were in local languages and topic selections were informed by scientists). Videos were then screened regularly in the community to share learnings. The localised participatory nature of Digital Green was important for people to relate to AGI information and increased adoption of sustainable livelihood practices throughout the community. IFFCO directly targeted progressive farmers, or those more likely to trial and adopt new practices based on capacity, circumstance, and interest. This assumed that farmers who receive AGI through the app, and adopt new practices, will then influence others in the community, either directly through sharing learnings or indirectly through demonstrated success.

#### 4.1.1. Agro-Climatic Challenges Being Addressed

Many initiatives addressed climate adaptation of farmers through increasing livelihood security (*n* = 19), with some initiatives specifically aiming to increase household income or food security (*n* = 15). Several initiatives focus on addressing both long-term and short-term climate change to combat adverse impacts on livelihoods [53] and agricultural productivity [60]. In Kenya, where rainfed agriculture supports the majority of subsistence livelihoods, ITIKI sought to address the challenge of limited rainfall monitoring through the development of an integrated communication framework for indigenous knowledge and scientific drought forecast information. In Tunisia, issues of agricultural water wastage and mal-management of resources were being addressed by WSN-DSS, supporting farmers with weather information, improved irrigation scheduling and water management. In rural Africa, MSIAF aimed to mitigate the long-term stress of drought by alerting farmers to market locations to purchase drought-tolerant beans. Initiatives addressing short-term climate shocks were largely related to weather variability, including increased frequency and intensity of meteorological natural disasters (PMDRRLK; WAMIS; iska; Digital Green), extreme conditions like hailstorms and unseasonal rains (Sowing Application), and erratic weather (Radio Monsoon; (M)obile Solutions).

#### 4.1.2. Technological Provisioning to Smallholder Farmers

Various technologies were utilised in the AGI initiatives (Figure 2). MMIS, Tigo Kilimo, Airtel Kilimo, (M)obile Solutions, and FDSS provided simple weather, crop or market information to farmers via low-tech tools, such as SMS and mobile phones, whereby farmers could either receive automatic updates (push notifications) or request information through SMS request or calling a helpline. Varying degrees of complexity were built into these basic mobile phone-based solutions. The inclusion of multiple languages and a peer-to-peer chat function were provided in the Airtel Kilimo mobile service. iska harnessed GPS technology to provide location-specific weather information via SMS. Other AGI initiatives employed internet capabilities to develop custom platforms and smartphone applications, expanding the possible information services offered in terms of both content and format, including support of images, video, animation, interactive content and maps, and hyperlinks to additional online resources. Jayalaxmi Agro Tech offered a range of crop-specific smartphone applications that aimed to enhance food and livelihood security by providing text, audio and visual content on crop information, pricing analytics, and on-demand weather to farmers in English and local languages. Similarly, IFFCO Kisan Agriculture App and Sowing Application aided farmer decision making through the provision of crop or weather information through text, voice, photo and video content. Plantwise Knowledge Bank used smartphones to augmen<sup>t</sup> their community-based information exchange activities by pooling information into a central resource for farmers and stakeholders to access; this is particularly useful for remote access by individuals. While GPS was explicitly stated for few AGI initiatives (WATMIS; iska; Agriculture Monitoring System), other initiatives using smart devices likely exploited this technology to provide their locational services.

**Figure 2.** Technologies featured in reviewed AGI initiatives.

Some web-based platform initiatives included and disseminated more data-rich geographic information, such as fine resolution satellite imagery e.g., WATMIS and Agriculture Monitoring System. Satellite imagery and other forms of remote sensing are valuable for detailed depictions of landscape environments and remote capture of data [82]. In Afghanistan, experimentation with methods of classifying satellite imagery was undertaken to strengthen national capacity on rice crop monitoring for sustainable development and food security (GIRCM). WATMIS incorporated GIS and remote sensing data for viable and cost-effective integrated watershed and natural resource planning and management, used by agriculturalists, rural communities and extension services, and land managers. Many AGI initiatives used GIS in combination with ICTs to increase landscape resilience. For example, environmental mapping of drought extent, soils and crops were disseminated to extension workers and farmers, through mobile phones (MSIAF). Online capabilities of technologies have allowed user feedback and sharing of local knowledge for a range of applications, in particular, through social media and crowdsourcing platforms [17]. Radio Monsoon included social media through multiple AGI dissemination methods, and participatory mapping activities that harness local knowledge were used in PMDRRLK. Aside from these two initiatives, social media was absent in all other initiatives. More traditional and primitive forms of information communication, such as radio, loudspeakers and billboards in communities were utilised in some initiatives (e.g., Radio Monsoon; ITIKI).
