**On-Farm Evaluation of the Potential Use of Greenhouse Gas Mitigation Techniques for Rice Cultivation: A Case Study in Thailand**

#### **Noppol Arunrat \*, Sukanya Sereenonchai and Nathsuda Pumijumnong**

Faculty of Environment and Resource Studies, Mahidol University, Nakhon Pathom 73170, Thailand; sukanya.ser@mahidol.ac.th (S.S.); nathsuda.pum@mahidol.ac.th (N.P.)

**\*** Correspondence: noppol.aru@mahidol.ac.th; Tel.: +66-2-441-5000

Received: 27 March 2018; Accepted: 25 April 2018; Published: 2 May 2018

**Abstract:** Environmental and socio-economic evaluations that imply techniques for mitigating greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from rice cultivation are a challenging and controversial issue. This study was designed to investigate the potential use of mitigation techniques for rice cultivation. Mid-season drainage (MD), using ammonium sulfate instead of urea (AS), and site-specific nutrient managemen<sup>t</sup> (SSNM) were chosen as mitigation techniques. Data were collected using field surveys and structured questionnaires at the same 156 farms, covering four crop years. The GHG emissions were evaluated based on the concept of the life cycle assessment of the GHG emissions of products. The farmers' assessments of mitigation techniques, with multiple criteria evaluation, were obtained by face-to-face interviews. Opinions on all mitigation techniques were requested two times covering four years with the same 156 farm owners. The multinomial logistic regression model was used to examine the factors influencing the farmers' decisions. The results show that SSNM was evaluated as the highest abatement potential (363.52 kgCO2eq ha−1), the negative value of abatement cost (−2565 THB ha−1), and the negative value of the average abatement cost ( −14 THB kgCO2eq−1). Among the different techniques, SSNM was perceived as the most suitable one, followed by MD and AS. Highly significant factors influencing decision making consisted of planted area, land size, farmer liability, farmer perception of yield, and GHG emissions. Subsidies or cost-sharing measures to convince farmers to adopt new techniques can enhance their practices, and more support for the development of water systems can increase their availability.

**Keywords:** rice field; mitigation techniques; greenhouse gas emissions; life cycle assessment; farmer acceptance; incentive measures
