*3.1. Study Area*

Located in the Horn of Africa, Ethiopia had a population of 94.35 million in 2017, according to the Ethiopian Central Statistical agency. The country has nine regional states and two city administrations. The Southern Nations Nationalities and Peoples' Regional State (SNNPRS) is one of the nine administrative regions comprising about 20% of the country's total population and 10% of the land area. The Sidama Administration Zone is one of the 14 administrative zones in the SNNPRS. With a population of 3,677,370 in 2014 [41], it is the most populous zone in the region. The zone is located in the central-eastern part of the region bordered by Oromiya in the North, East, and Southeast, Gedeo Zone in the South, and Wolayita Zone in the west. The zone lies between 6◦10 to 7◦05 North latitude and 38◦21 to 39◦11 East longitude. The total area of the zone is 6981.9 km<sup>2</sup> [42].

Three drought-prone districts (Hawassa Zuria, Boricha, and Loka Abaya) were selected for this study (Figure 1). The districts are located in the heart of the East African Rift Valley and they were chosen based on their higher potential risk of exposure to adverse climate change and variability. Variable RF and higher temperatures characterize the districts compared to other districts of the zone. The population of the districts is 576,865 from 113,285 households. About 97% of the population in these districts lives in rural areas where drought-prone agriculture is their source of livelihood. Agro-pastoral communities dominate the southwestern parts of the study area, where climate-related animal diseases are prevalent.

**Figure 1.** The geographic location of the study area.

Diverse climate characterizes the drought-prone districts of Sidama Zone. Altitude ranges from 560–2300 meters above sea level and the average annual RF ranges between 700 and 1200 mm. The RF pattern in the area is bimodal, which occurs in the summer and spring seasons. The summer (*kiremt*) rains last from June to September while the spring (*belg*) rains usually begin in February and end in late May. Both the *kiremt* and *belg* rains are irregular and unpredictable, resulting in frequent losses of harvest and cattle. The region has a bimodal precipitation distribution and high RF variability due to the seasonal progression of the inter-tropical convergence zone (ITCZ), an atmospheric circulation feature often modified by the El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO). Also, there is severe livestock and human diseases (for example, malaria, cholera, and trypanosomiasis) in the area largely due to the inhospitable climate. The perennial Bilate River, which dissects the Wolayita and Sidama Zones, drains the western part of the area. The eastern part lacks perennial rivers, and households largely depend on artificial ponds and hand-dug shallow wells for water for domestic uses and watering livestock. The area experiences severe water shortages when the ponds run out of water during the December–February dry period.
