*3.3. Crop Biology*

Crop production and harvest research have traditionally been limited to studies on the physiology and genetics of plants, the creation of new plant varieties, the development of new agricultural chemicals and the development of better agronomic methods [28]. Such research is necessary and

there is an increasing number of global initiatives, which are aimed at the achievement of higher cereal yields [29]. Similarly, reducing the yield gap is also a keen research topic and objective, since it is becoming more and more justifiable for many crops to increase yields. Genetic enhancements are likely to be the potential solutions for achieving maximum yields for plants of key importance. There is considerable potential for improvement in yields and flexibility in the so-called "orphan crops". These crops have not been genetically modified ye<sup>t</sup> and they are not traded on an international level. Consequently, less attention is focused on them in terms of their agricultural utilization. As they receive less research attention, breeding technology of "orphan crops" is lagging behind modern technology (e.g., millet, cowpea, manioc, etc.) [30]. On the other hand, agricultural research is increasingly driven by problems of a wider scope, such as the expected decline in yields due to climate change and severe weather events [31]. In addition to problems elicited by weather, the focus of research is on the emission of greenhouse gases and the pollution of water associated with the production of nitrogen-based fertilizers [32–34].

Similarly, research on pests and diseases is important as they are also major risk factors in the case of yield differentials and, due to the effects of climate change and efforts to conserve biodiversity, they are considered as urgen<sup>t</sup> factors [35]. Due to the concerns about soil degradation discussed above, all agricultural practices related to conservation should be applied for the sake of yield improvements, such as tillage and other measures such as the conservation of crop residues and the application of crop rotations [36]. In order for agriculture to meet the emerging challenges it faces, new scientific discoveries should be adapted into practice as soon as possible. In addition, closer cooperation between farmers and scientists is required to integrate new developments appropriately into developments that complement agricultural practices [37]. Nevertheless, the use of genetically modified plants still sets off contradictions among researchers. The debate is mainly present between representatives of natural science and social science; however, it must be resolved in order for the reasons of aversions towards technologies to become understood [38]. Especially, as the latest technological advancements, for example, the application of genome editing in agriculture—and indirectly in food production—might exceed the significance of current GMO crop production [39]. GMO crops can play a radically different role in certain markets: while they have been present in the US since the mid-1990s [40], their distribution in other countries is strictly prohibited.

### *3.4. Reasons of Changing Eating Habits*

Consumption patterns are constantly shifting towards products of animal origin and dairy products that contain higher value added, which results in the increasing demand for the production of feed crops. This process is already typical as, between 1960 and 2010, global arable land per capita decreased from 0.45 to 0.25 hectares and by 2050, it is expected to shrink to less than 0.20 hectares [41]. Approximately 66% of agricultural land is currently used by livestock farming in the European Union as well. This ratio is 40% on a global scale and is expected to rise further by 2050 [41]. According to the data above, dietary change will have a more prominent impact on land use than population growth. The problems mentioned above could be addressed by putting emphasis on wider cultural changes, which focuses on the necessity for coordinated actions of governmen<sup>t</sup> and political activities, industry, communities, family and society. Recognizing the social needs and attitudes of consumer behavior, a number of research studies analyzing dietary changes are published, which increasingly reveal the routine nature of consumer habits and the institutions and infrastructure supporting them [42–44]. Initiatives aimed at the promotion of healthier and more sustainable patterns of consumption should address the social and technical systems that are able to respond to changing consumer habits. According to certain research activities, the decision-making process for choosing a diet might force consumers to face various ethical challenges [45]. For example, consumer preferences for organic food (with respect to health or sustainability) or the need for locally produced food (minimizing the so-called "food miles"). Obviously, these preferences greatly influence the decision-making process of consumers

in relation to the choice of diet [42]. In addition, it should be emphasized that the sustainability of the food supply could be significantly improved even by the reduction of food losses [46].

The growing population should strive for sustainable food consumption, as social, environmental and health impacts are very important in this respect as well. To this end, the benefits of consuming foods that are less harmful to the environment during production are also to be emphasized in the scope of consumption policy and education related to nutrition as opposed to other food types, the production of which causes a major raw material demand [47]. In several countries—at primary schools—lunch break is a basic place of the learning process, where students learn about hygiene, healthy eating habits and/or recycling waste. Acquiring knowledge about healthy eating and recycling waste is fundamental at a young age [48]. Current global trends in food consumption are unsustainable, analyzed in terms of either public health, environmental impacts or socio-economic costs [49]. On di fferent geographic scales, there are clear correlations between the socio-economic situation and the intake of high-quality food and the resulting health outcomes. The change in production structure is caused by the increase in the number of people with higher incomes in low- and medium-income countries. Primarily, this induces a change in consumption habits through the increasing consumption of meat, fruit and vegetables compared to di fferent kinds of cereals [50]. The fact that the seasonal consumption of fruit and vegetables completely disappears is a particularly interesting development. From this point of view, transportation can be a critical factor of environmental impact. Currently, a person eats an average of 42 kg of meat annually, which is expected to rise to 52 kg by 2050, and 1.5 billion new consumers will appear on the market [27]. The growing share of poultry meat among other kinds of meat should be mentioned here. Due to changing eating habits, more and more people consume chicken meat. It can be produced relatively quickly, it is relatively cheaper, and it is not prohibited by religions.

The focus of research is increasingly shifted towards the relationship between nutrition and food production, especially the problems caused by climate change, increasing population and urbanization. As an example, many studies on Africa have been published [51,52], which have pointed out that there is a need for intervention at a social level to modify nutrition habits and to avoid malnutrition. Areas that are di fferent in terms of public health so far are likely to become even more diversified, as low-income countries in particular find it more di fficult to adapt to the consequences of climate change, food shortages and water shortage, as well as to the associated socio-demographic changes and the resulting dietary modifications [53]. Subsequent research activities and their practical implementation should address the impact of dietary changes on the natural environment and the impact of environmental changes on all components of food safety [20].

The integrated approach of agri-food research draws attention to the impact of social and political conflicts on health and malnutrition. Changes occurring in the environment might aggravate malnutrition by limiting the ability to produce food products. Extreme weather events (for example drought and floods) might contribute to the volatile change in food prices, which in extreme cases might result in serious problems, in the form of riots or the further increase in the proportion of famine [54].

### *3.5. Links between Nutrients and "Hidden Hunger"*

There is a detectable positive change in the reduction process of global famine. However, despite progress, the world is still far from a sustainable food safety system. Obesity is a phenomenon that exists nearly in parallel with famine and malnutrition. Nearly 800 million people are chronically underfed in terms of energy intake, while 2 billion people su ffer from micronutrient deficit, but at the same time 1.9 billion people are overweight or obese [55,56].

People su ffering from hidden hunger typically consume food items with high calorie but low nutrient content, which can easily lead to obesity (although not necessarily). This also proves that famine and obesity, as well as under- and overnutrition occur in parallel at a global scale. This means the inadequate consumption of su fficient vitamins, minerals and trace elements. Therefore, it is

interesting that overnutrition (in calories) may be associated with malnutrition (micronutrient). It will be a grea<sup>t</sup> challenge for the future to produce food of not only su fficient quantity but quality as well. As a summary of the above, three phenomena appear as contradictions but parallel to each other: malnutrition, overnutrition, and hidden hunger. These three forms of nutritional problems are also referred to as the "triple burden" of malnutrition [57]. This triple e ffect contributes to the reduction of physical and cognitive human development, the loss of productivity, sensitivity to infectious and chronic diseases and aging [58].

Micronutrient-deficient nutrition is a global phenomenon that may a ffect certain social groups, such as those over the age of 65 even in the most advanced countries [60]. Reduction of the various forms of malnutrition requires better food policy and targeted nutrition-related interventions. In Africa and Asia, urban populations are growing at a high rate, which may lead to a further decrease in per capita nutrients (an average reduction of 36% in Africa, 30% in Asia) (Figure 5). A possible solution for slowing down the process might be nutrient reuse. In contrast, average per capita amount of nutrients in Europe will decrease by 10%, but a steady decline in population numbers is also expected here [61]. Obviously, these analyses are limited by certain factors as they do not take into account, for example, the size of the city or changes that have occurred in terms of land use. By 2030, urban expansion will require an additional 2% of the available global land, but local e ffects might be more significant in the life of individual cities, a ffecting reuse opportunities and making adaptive decisions [8].

**Figure 5.** Map of hidden hunger. (Source: Muthayya et. al. (2013) [59]).

### *3.6. Climate Change and Water*

According to estimations, climate change has already reduced global crop yields of maize and wheat by 3.8% and 5.5% respectively and researchers are warning that further decline in productivity is expected as temperature changes exceed critical physiological thresholds [62]. The progressively extreme climate change increases production risk and puts an increasing burden on the subsistence of agricultural producers. Climate change also poses a threat to the food supply of both rural and urban populations. Extreme climatic events have a long-term negative impact, since exposure to risk and increasing uncertainty a ffect the introduction of e ffective economic innovations. Consequently, the number of low-risk but low-yield activities begins to increase [31]. Agricultural activity also contributes to warming the planet. Total carbon dioxide emissions from agriculture in 2010 were equal to 5.2–5.8 gigatons of CO2 equivalent annually, representing approximately 10%–12% of global anthropogenic emissions [63]. Agricultural categories with the highest level of emission are fermentation, manure, synthetic fertilizer and biomass combustion. Considering that there will be a need for further increases in agricultural production, the emission of harmful substances is also expected to increase. The main source of planned emission growth is the application of conventional agricultural techniques (as opposed to precision farming) that will result in the further, severe damage of the ecosystem, such as further water and soil pollution [64]. Some recent publications discuss the impact of climate change on yields, especially for the most important crops, such as wheat, maize, rice and soybean [65–69], which means that scientific processing of the topic is ongoing.

Currently, 97.5% of Earth's water resources are saltwater and only 2.5% is freshwater, 69% of which are glaciers and persistent snow, 30.7% groundwater, and 0.3% in the form of lakes and rivers [41]. There is some similarity between freshwater resources and land in terms of their availability. If we look at both factors on a global level, they are available in su fficient quantities, but the distribution is very uneven. This is also illustrated by the fact that there are huge di fferences between countries in the same regions, but even within countries. Demand for water is expected to increase by 100% by 2050, which can be attributed to population growth, urbanization and the e ffects of climate change [70]. As the urban population grows, household and industrial water consumption are expected to double. Climate change implies a greater chance of more extreme weather phenomena, because of which water consumption of crop production might increase considerably [70].

Humanity consumes the most water in the course of food production and global production of cereals. Due to increasing food production, water resources from the rivers and groundwater are primarily used for the irrigation of cultivated crops. Most irrigation systems usually provide more water to plants than they actually require [71]. Improving living standards, changing food preferences and the increasing demand for goods require a higher amount of water consumption. At the same time, more than 650 million people—especially south of the Sahara—have no access to drinking water of adequate quality. The current situation is further exasperated by the fact that 2.4 billion people do not have modern wastewater managemen<sup>t</sup> [72]. The United Nations Organization puts special emphasis on the issue of sewage disposal.

This is also well illustrated by the fact that the 6th element of the Sustainable Development Goals is clean and sanitary water. Ensuring appropriate managemen<sup>t</sup> and sustainable treatment of water resources is essential for our future.

Climate change is a global phenomenon, but developing countries are in greater danger. In addition, the problems posed by urbanization, increasing water shortage and technological backwardness are the most important challenges to be addressed. Rural areas should have access to the fundamental services of the 21st century, such as public utilities, health care, electrification, education, etc. This is important for the improvement in the living conditions of the population living here [63].
