*5.3. Storage Losses*

Storage plays a central role in the grain supply chain. Grain storage losses are a ffected by several factors, including direct and indirect losses. Direct losses are related to the physical loss of grains, and indirect losses occur due to loss in quality and nutrition [35]. Storage losses can be classified into biotic factors (insect, pests, rodents, fungi) and abiotic factors (temperature, humidity, rain). Moisture content and temperature a ffects storage life. For example, storage molds spread rapidly at higher temperatures and humidity. Damage and losses caused by insects and rodents can refer to physical deterioration (e.g., holes in the grain) and quality (value) loss. Huge direct and indirect storage losses are reported in developing countries. Jayas [67] estimated losses as low as 1–2% in developed countries using metal silos compared to 20–50% in developing countries where grains are generally stored by family farms in traditional storage structures. According to Manandhar et al. [34] in most developing countries up to 80% of cereals are produced by small family farms where grain losses can go up to 15% in the field, 13–20% during processing, and 15–25% during storage, giving total losses of 43–60%. Grain losses in storage account for 10 to 20% of stored products, as a result of damage caused by insects [68]. By calculating an average storage loss and damage of up to 20% of stored grain worldwide, approximately 420 mt of grains are lost during storage annually.

The storage and handling methods should minimize losses. Before storage the grain must be cleaned and contaminants (dust, insects, straw, cha ff, weed seeds, etc.) removed. Furthermore, test for toxins is mandatory before storage and grains of low, medium and high contamination level must be stored separately from each other. Critical physiological factors (moisture content and temperature) affect the storability of crops because high moisture content and heat cause fungal and insect problems, therefore humidity temperature and CO2 control is highly important. Introducing best practices for handling and storage is a cheaper solution compared to the loss of grains during storage.
