**5. Conclusions**

In conclusion, we found that the prevalence of food insecurity is high in South African older adults, and that food insecurity is associated with MCI, with this association being particularly pronounced among individuals aged ≥65 years. Although biological plausibility suggests that food insecurity may lead to MCI, future studies with a longitudinal and experimental design are warranted to assess causality and the utility of addressing food insecurity as a preventive strategy for MCI and subsequent dementia.

**Author Contributions:** Conceptualization, A.K. and E.L.; methodology, A.K., N.V.; formal analysis, A.K., N.V., E.L; writing—original draft preparation, A.K.; writing—review and editing, all authors.

**Funding:** This research received no external funding.

**Acknowledgments:** Ai Koyanagi's work is supported by the PI15/00862 project, integrated into the National R + D + I and funded by the ISCIII - General Branch Evaluation and Promotion of Health Research - and the European Regional Development Fund (ERDF-FEDER).

**Conflicts of Interest:** The authors declare no conflict of interest.
