**The "Fan of the Terre Peligne": Integrated Enhancement and Valorization of the Archeological and Geological Heritage of an Inner-Mountain Area (Abruzzo, Central Apennines, Italy)**

**Tommaso Piacentini 1,2,\*, Maria Carla Somma 3, Sonia Antonelli 3, Marcello Buccolini 1, Gianluca Esposito 1, Vania Mancinelli <sup>1</sup> and Enrico Miccadei 1,2**


Received: 27 May 2019; Accepted: 20 June 2019; Published: 24 June 2019

**Abstract:** The outstanding cultural heritage of Italy is intimately related to the landscape and its long-lasting history. Besides major cities, famous localities, and park areas, several minor places and areas hide important features that allow the enhancing of inner-mountain and hilly areas as well as local natural reserves. This enhancement is supported by combining different types of cultural tourism, such as the archeological and geological ones. In this paper, an integrated geological–archeological itinerary is presented, which aims to valorize both these aspects in the inner-mountain areas of the central Apennines. The itinerary, called the "Fan of the Terre Peligne", is focused on the Terre Peligne area located in the Sulmona basin, in the central-eastern part of the Apennines chain (Abruzzo region, central Italy). It is composed of five sectors (one for each of the municipalities included) and incorporates traditional physical tools and digital ones. Here, the evidence of the Apennines formation is preserved from the origin of marine carbonate rocks to their deformation and the landscape shaping. The Terre Peligne intermontane basin became—and still is—one of the main transit areas for crossing the Italian peninsula since before Roman times and here many stages of Italian history are preserved. This allows outlining of the presence of man since prehistoric times, and here the name "Italia" was defined for the first time, in Corfinio, and to testify the connection between human and landscape history. A SWOT (strengths–weaknesses–opportunities–threats) analysis highlighted the main strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats. Combining geological and archeological elements, which are intimately connected in this area, this itinerary intends to be an instrument for the enhancement and awareness of the natural and cultural heritage of a poorly known area that features outstanding geological, landscape, and human elements of the history of the inner Apennines.

**Keywords:** geotourism resources; cultural tourism; archeology; touristic itinerary; valorization; inner-mountain areas; Apennines; central Italy

#### **1. Introduction**

The cultural heritage of Italy is one of the most noticeable in the world and is intimately related to the landscape and its long-lasting history. This is valued mainly in the major cities, popular localities, and national parks [1–8], while it is poorly developed in many minor villages, country areas, local natural reserves, and less-known areas, such as in the inner-mountain areas of the Apennines. However, there are many places, archeological sites, and landscapes that preserve the geological history of our country, as well as important stages of human history [9–14]. Tourism, in particular cultural tourism and geotourism combining natural and cultural features with geological and geomorphological ones, is constantly expanding in the management, use, and enhancement of geological and cultural heritage of poorly known areas [15–18]. The valorization of natural and cultural features combined with geological and geomorphological features is the base of this kind of tourism, which can become a crucial promotion tool for inner-mountain areas and for connecting them to the most known touristic places and park areas. It can also become a contribution to resilience, turning geological hazards (e.g., earthquakes, landslides, flooding) into opportunities to raise the people's awareness, to set up a culture of preventing natural hazards and also to create new job opportunities in inner-mountain areas [19]. Many different types of activities have been realized in recent decades to enhance these valuable elements with varying kinds of approach. To well-known major and less-known minor archeological sites, abiotic elements of geodiversity were added (in the meaning of Brilha [20]). These include geosites—elements, areas, or places of geological interest of significant value and important witnesses of Earth's history [21]—as well as geomorphosites—as areas with geological features and landforms that have acquired a scientific, cultural/historical, aesthetic and/or social/economic value due to human perception or exploitation [7,22–24]. The realization of maps, itineraries, and illustrative materials in this area has aided not only in disseminating information about geological features and heritage but also in increasing awareness of geo-environmental and historical issues through sustainable tourism [10–14,25–29]. Moreover, in recent years, integrated proposals were defined based on tried and tested itineraries incorporating geological elements (e.g., geosites) combined to more common topics, such as flora and fauna, architecture, archeology, etc. [28,30–35].

This paper presents an integrated geological–archeological itinerary in its overall structure and main features. It aims to enhance the natural (geological) and cultural (archeological) heritage of an inner-mountain area of the Apennines, precisely of the Terre Peligne in the Sulmona basin (Abruzzo, central Italy; Figure 1, Figure 2). The itinerary is located between the main national parks of Abruzzo. It connects the Majella National Park and the Velino-Sirente Regional Park, crossing the Natural Reserve of the San Venanzio Gorges. It is also placed south of the Gran Sasso Laga mountains National Park and north of the Abruzzo, Lazio, and Molise National Park. To contribute to the enhancement of the precious elements of the "Terre Peligne", various activities have been carried out so far. Concerning the archeological aspects, several sites have been investigated as places keeping evidence of human activities in different historical periods. For geological and geomorphological aspects, geosites and geomorphosites have been identified, as areas with specific characteristics that have acquired a scientific value [4,36].

The integrated itinerary of the "Terre Peligne" combines geological–archeological sites trying to enhance them in an overall integrated view under the historical, cultural, aesthetic, social, and economic profiles [20,22,28]. The itinerary was realized, in a collaboration among geologists and archeologists of the "G. d'Annunzio" University of Chieti-Pescara, local authorities (the municipalities of Roccacasale, Prezza, Raiano, Vittorito, Corfinio, gathered in the Terre Peligne Association), professionals, and technicians, working in the area. It stems from the awareness of the poor sensitivity of the population on: (i) the long-lasting geological and geomorphological history that has created the current mountain landscape from an ancient tropical sea (and that today determine natural hazards) and (ii) the poor dissemination and popularization of the archeological features that bear witness to the human history of the inner mountainous areas of Abruzzo.

**Figure 1.** (**a**) Location Map of the Terre Peligne area (black line) within the central Apennines (three-dimensional view from 90 m DEM, SRTM). (**b**) Panoramic view of the Terre Peligne area within the Sulmona basin (view from western sector, in the municipality of Vittorito).

**Figure 2.** Location of the Terre Peligne (black line) in the Abruzzo Region (top left) and Geological scheme of the Sulmona basin showing the location of the "Fan of the Terre Peligne" (black line) (modified from [37,38]).

The "Fan of the Terre Peligne" itinerary focuses on how the landscape and geological features can be intimately related and connected to human history, settlements, and activities. It incorporates in five sectors dedicated to different themes, one for each of the Terre Peligne Association municipalities. These sectors define a fan-shaped area that named the itinerary as "Fan of the Terre Peligne". The purpose is the integration of archeological elements with geological-geomorphological and other attractive aspects of the territory, including all forms of cultural heritage (both tangible and intangible), to increase the tourist attractiveness of this area. Here, the evidence of the geological history of the Apennines is preserved from the origin of marine carbonate rocks to their deformation and from the formation of the major mountain ridges to the landscape shaping. From an archeological point of view, the territory has maintained significant evidence, which allows reconstruction of the settlement evolution as well as the development of the relationship between man, rocks, and landscape in these internal areas of Abruzzo. The economy of this region in ancient times was based on the wise exploitation of available landscape resources in an integrated economic system through agriculture, forestry/herding, and sheep farming [39]. Moreover, in this area, the name "Italia" was defined for the first time, in Corfinio, the capital city of the ancient Italic League.

#### **2. Materials and Methods**

The "Fan of the Terre Peligne" itinerary runs across the Sulmona basin and is defined as a multicolor fan. The selection of the path and the main stop sites was qualitatively based on three main criteria similar for archeology and geology: (i) location and spatial connection along the Terre Peligne area; (ii) site type and origin, and (iii) temporal distribution in the geological/archeological time scale [28,40–42]. Even if at this stage we did not run a quantitative assessment of the sites [20], this approach is in agreement with what has been done in many cases for geosites evaluation (e.g., within Environmental Impact Assessment and territorial planning [11,12,43]; inventories of natural heritage sites, [31,35,40,44]; tourist promotion [14,45]; management of nature parks [4,6,22,46,47]).

The "Fan of the Terre Peligne" results from the fan-shape of the itinerary and is composed of five geological and archeological thematic sectors, one for each of the municipalities joined the Association of Terre Peligne (Figure 3). The sectors are identified by a geographic orientation: north-east, south, west, north-west, north. Each of them is associated with a color that refers to the geological-geomorphological theme, according to the international coded conventions (Geological Survey of Italy, ISPRA, and International Association of Geomorphology, IAG) (Figure 3): red for tectonics, which created the ridges; orange for karst landscape and dark green for fluvial and water-related processes shaping the main ridges; light green for lacustrine environments and blue for hydrography and rivers-related processes in the Sulmona basin. Each sector is also connected to a specific archeological theme: protect and dominate, the invisible history, water and stone, man and highlands, from the capital of the italics to Pentima. This arrangement is realized to enhance the intrinsic value of the villages, the variable views of the landscape and the geological features of the area, as well as the various archeological elements. It is defined to shed a new light on the values of this territory rich in cultural heritage, in which natural and human history are strictly combined.

The geological-geomorphological features presented in the different sectors and sites along the itinerary were selected and defined through research activity and studies in the Sulmona area and the central-eastern Apennines in recent decades. The studies were mostly based on field geological-geomorphological investigations and mapping, as well as morphometric and morphotectonic investigations, focused on the geological features and geomorphological landforms of this area [37,38,48–54]. From these studies, the primary and most exciting findings were selected and underwent specific field investigations in order to be presented to a broad public, mainly focusing on the evidence of the different stages of the geological and landscape evolution as well as the hazard connected to the recent tectonic and geomorphological processes. The latest field investigations provided the best sites and outcrops to show and explain the formation of marine and continental sedimentary rocks and to outline their structure. The best exposures of fault plains were selected to explain their role in the landscape shaping, as well as their connection to earthquakes and seismic hazard. The geomorphological analysis outlined the most interesting and well-exposed landforms shaped by water-related processes (i.e., fluvial and lacustrine processes, gorges/valley incisions, karst processes), which explained of the landscape evolution.

The archeological findings presented in the selected sites are also the results of several activities and studies carried out in the Terre Peligne area during recent decades [36].

The stages of development and transformation of this territory—and their extensive diachrony—were reconstructed, being so crucial for the understanding of the settlement history in this part of the central Apennines area. From the late 90s of the last century extensive archeological excavations have been carried out in Corfinio, thanks to an urban archeological project from the Abruzzo Archeological Department, the University of Chieti and the University of Rome "La Sapienza" as well as the municipality of Corfinio [55–60]. Excluding these large projects, the Terre Peligne area has not been studied systematically from an archeological point of view. Previously, the findings have been mostly occasional, except for some broader research carried out between the end of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th centuries by Antonio De Nino, gathered mainly in the volume of *Forma Italiae* published in 1984 by van Wonterghem [61].

**Figure 3.** Scheme of the "Fan of the Terre Peligne" path (see Table 1 for details). The colors are those officially coded for the geological and geomorphological features (Geological Survey of Italy, ISPRA, and International Association of Geomorphology, IAG) that characterize each sector: red for tectonics, orange for karst landscape, dark green for fluvial processes, light green for lacustrine environments, and blue for rivers and hydrography.

These overall studies highlighted the high value of the archeological heritage, which however in most cases is hardly usable by the general public and is disseminated throughout the territory, often in areas of high landscape value. In this study, the main sites were selected across the area defining main groups or themes, which combines historical perspective and landscape connections. These thematic groups and the single sites were then organized and explained with lay and easy to understand language to make them suitable for the general public and for enhancing these sites in a touristic and educational perspective.

The geological and archeological element of the "Fan of the Terre Peligne" are therefore arranged in five sectors. Each sector of the itinerary features a triangular "totem" with the introduction to the geological and archeological setting of the specific area and municipality. In the most significant sites, geological and archeological stops are defined, marked by plates and logos, which through digital devices (tablet, smartphone) allow access to the information about the site. For the main sites (1–2 for each sector), larger and more descriptive panels are defined. The entire itinerary features five triangular totems, ten panels in the main stops and 26 plates or logos, as summarized in Figure 3 and Table 1. In each sector, stops of geological (G1, G2, etc.) and archeological (A1, A2, etc.) interest are identified. Secondary routes are connected (by walk or bicycle, dashed in Figure 3) are connected to the main ones.

#### **3. Geological and Archeological Values of the Terre Peligne Area**

The study area is located in the Sulmona intermontane basin (also known as Peligna valley or Terre Peligne area) on the eastern side of the central Apennines chain. This area is located in a key node in terms of both geological (junction of marine paleogeographies Mesozoic-Cenozoic era, tectonic features, and Quaternary terrestrial landscape) and archeological framework (transit zone from the mountain areas to the Adriatic and Tyrrhenian coast for the entire central Apennines). The itinerary runs all along the northern part of the Sulmona intermontane basin and incorporates the main elements of the geological and human history of this area (Figure 1, Figure 2, Figure 3).

#### *3.1. Geological Setting*

The landscape of the Abruzzo Apennines, as well as of the entire chain, is the result of the geological evolution in the Neogene–Quaternary period (from ~15 My ago to present) of an east-verging orogenic system composed of several Neogene thrust sheet displaced by Pliocene (5–2.5 My) strike-slip and Quaternary (2.5 My to present) extensional tectonics and regional uplift [52,62]. These tectonic processes led to the emersion of the Apennines orogen and the progressive development of the main ridges with the beginning of the geomorphological evolution forming an initial landscape (at least from the Late Miocene-Early Pliocene, ~5 My). From the chain area to the piedmont and coastal area, the landscape evolution was closely connected with a complex combination of endogenous (morphotectonics) and exogenous processes (slope, fluvial, karst and glacial processes) [38,45,63–66]. During the Quaternary, regional uplift combined with extensional tectonics defined a system dominated by calcareous ridges, by valleys incised in Neogene sandstone and claystone rocks, and by intermontane basins filled by Quaternary continental (mainly slope and fluvial) deposits.

The Sulmona basin (Figure 1, Figure 3) is one of the main and more eastern intermontane basins of the Apennines surrounded by main NW-SE elongated ridges (Mt. Morrone, Maiella Mts., Peligne Mts. [37,49–51,67]). These ridges are composed of calcareous rocks formed in different paleogeographic marine environment from Jurassic to Miocene (200–10 My): a thick sequence of shallow sea carbonate platform rocks (southern and central sector of Mt. Morrone) and a sequence of slope to basin limestone-marl-chert rocks (northern sector of Mt. Morrone and Peligne mountains in the western side of the basin) (Figure 2) [53,54,67]. They are affected by N-S thrust faults and systems of NW-SE normal faults. Specifically, the Sulmona basin is bordered by a primary NW-SE normal fault system along the Mt. Morrone SW slope, affected by Quaternary and recent (~1 My to present) tectonic activity responsible for the formation of the basin [49–51,53,54,68,69]. The basin was occupied by a large lake during the Middle Pleistocene (~0.8–0.3 My) and is partially filled by slope, alluvial fan deposits, and by a thick sequence of lacustrine deposits related to an ancient Peligno lake [50,70] covered by fluvial deposits during the late Middle Pleistocene (~0.3–0.12 My) and incised by river valleys (Late Pleistocene-Holocene, 0.12 My to present). The combination of extensional tectonics and lacustrine-fluvial processes defined the formation of the gentle landscape of the intermontane basins in which the Terre Peligne are placed. The combination of fluvial and karst processes, also controlled by tectonic features, is well documented along the slopes and in the valleys. This combination defined the shaping of the rugged landscape of the ridges and the formation of deep valleys, gorges, and incisions, parallel or transversal to the main ridges (e.g., Aterno Gorges, Sagittario Gorges, Popoli Gorges; [38]), which define the main transit routes across the Apennines since historic and protohistoric times.

In the "Fan of the Terre Peligne" itinerary, the most significant geological and geomorphological themes are therefore related to (i) the origin and formation of the calcareous rocks in marine environment, (ii) the junction between marine and continental environment testifying the emersion of the ridges, (iii) the tectonic processes affecting the landscape through major fault systems; (iv) the formation and evolution of the ancient Peligno lake, and finally (v) the progressive development of the main ridges and the shaping of the landscape due to fluvial, slope, and karst processes.

#### *3.2. Archeological Framework*

The area of the Terre Peligne is a significant node of the Abruzzo territory also for the human history testified by archeological findings. This area has been an obligatory transit point since prehistoric times for those who moved from the internal mountain areas of the central Apennines to the hilly and coastal Adriatic sector. An articulated network of paths closely connected to the morphology of the territory has allowed and supported the link of various settlements that tells a story thousands of years long marked by the interaction of man with the environment. Significant findings dating back to the prehistoric age testify the presence of man in this area. Thereafter, the Italic population settled in the Peligna valley before the Roman conquest. In addition, here, in Corfinio, the capital city of the ancient Italic League, the name "Italia" was defined for the first time [71]. The Roman conquest led to a widespread occupation focused on high-ground sites, where massive defensive walls are still visible, and around sanctuaries located in places with geological and landscape features strictly related to road links [55,72,73].

Corfinio, even after the Social War, continued to be the primary center in this area, a Roman municipality which, especially between the first century B.C. and the first century A.D., would show the presence of significant monuments [55]. His role as a political and religious center in the territory would continue throughout the Early Middle Ages. The extensive reconstruction of the Episcopal complex in Valva carried out by the bishop Trasmondo at the end of the XI century may represent the last large-scale work in this area [74]. Since then, the settlement layout has been increasingly centered on the close network of castles, some of them built on previous pre-Roman settlements, which in many cases still exists in the old centers of present towns. These events gave rise to the arrangement of Corfinio's archeological areas which are now preserved also in the local Municipal Museum "Antonio De Nino" [75].

In the itinerary, the main archeological elements are therefore related to (i) the history form the capital of the Italics to Pentima, (ii) the protection and domination of the Terre Peligne area from the surrounding ridges, (iii) the man occupation in the highlands, (iv) the role of water and stones in the transitways from the inner Apennines to the Adriatic area, and finally (v) the invisible history hidden in the landscape of the Terre Peligne.

#### **4. The "Fan of the Terre Peligne": Five Villages, Five Colors, Five Themes**

The "Fan of the Terre Peligne" connects five different municipalities (Roccacasale, Prezza, Raiano, Vittorito, and Corfinio) across the Terre Peligne area. As mentioned above, each village corresponds to a sector and a specific geological-geomorphological theme as well to an archeologic one and includes two to seven stops for geological and archeological observations (Figure 3, Table 1).

**Table 1.** Main sectors of "Fan of Terre Peligne" itinerary, geological and archeological themes and local stops along the path (see Figure 3 for location). The colors are those officially coded for the geological and geomorphological features (Geological Survey of Italy, ISPRA, and International Association of Geomorphology, IAG) that characterize each sector: red for tectonics, orange for karst landscape, dark green for fluvial processes, light green for lacustrine environments, and blue for rivers and hydrography.


#### *4.1. Roccacasale: Eastern Sector (Red)*

The east part of the itinerary is in the municipality of Roccacasale and starts the "Fan of Terre Peligne" itinerary (Figure 2) and run at the boundary of the Majella National Park. From the Roccacasale castle, it shows a glance on the overall landscape of the Terre Peligne area explaining the formation of the Sulmona basin and the steep south-west slope of the Mt. Morrone (north-east side of the basin). In this sector, it is also well documented how this landscape was exploited for human activities along historical time, specifically for defense and protection as well as for domination of the settlements on the plain.

#### 4.1.1. Geology—The Born of the Basin and The Slope

This sector is arranged to explain the processes that led to the formation of the slope of Mt. Morrone (Figure 4) and of the Sulmona intermontane basin, as well as how these processes are connected to one of the main faults of the central Apennines (the Mt. Morrone fault) forming the structure of the Terre Peligne landscape. The red color is coded in geology for tectonics and faults, the main topic of the sector: what are they and how can be observed, when and where have been formed, how are connected to earthquake and seismicity and what have been their effects on the landscape? Faults are explained as a well-known hazard element connected to earthquakes but also as natural events that contributed to building the variety of the landscape of the Terre Peligne area and the entire Apennines, featuring sharp ridges, wide basins, and deep valleys.

**Figure 4.** (**a**) Panoramic view of the SW escarpment of the Mt. Morrone ridge; the landscape is marked by several fault scarp related to the Mt. Morrone fault system (red lines). (**b**) Fault scarp located SE of the Roccacasale village; it is a well-polished rock fault plane, over 3 m high, NW-SE oriented and SW-dipping of about 50◦; in the upper part it weathered and eroded due to the rock jointing; it is a normal fault with the SW side (hanging wall) downthrown and the NE side uplifted (foot wall), as explained in the inset cartoon. (**c**) Alluvial fan sediments consisting of blocks, gravel, and sand; they result from the fault-related escarpment weathering and erosion and the accumula-tion at the base of the slope; they are arranged in layers declining from the fault scarp to the plain.

After a panoramic view on the Mt. Morrone fault-related escarpment (Figure 4a), in the Roccacasale area, it is possible to see and touch a large fault plane (Figure 4b). It is part of the Mt. Morrone fault system to which strong historical earthquakes were connected as well as large ancient landslides and recent slope mass movements [51,69]. The fault plane is visible as a flat and smoothed surface on calcareous rocks NW-striking and SW-dipping around 50◦ forming a steep rock scarp (known as fault scarp; Figure 4b). It is a normal fault, meaning that the SW side (Sulmona plain) has been downthrown while the NE side (Mt. Morrone ridge) has been uplifted forming the steep slope separating ridge and plain. This process induced strong jointing in the calcareous rocks, especially along the fault, and their intense weathering. The last part of this sector outlines how the progressive weathering of the escarpment and the incision of the jointed rocks has produced a significant accumulation of debris deposits resulting in large alluvial fans forming the junction between slope and plain (Figure 4c).

#### 4.1.2. Archeology—Protect and Dominate

The steepness and straightness, strictly connected to the tectonic origin as a fault-related slope, made the escarpment of the Mt. Morrone and the Roccacasale area a key sector for dominating and protecting the whole Terre Peligne area during the human history since pre-Roman times (Figure 5).

**Figure 5.** Roccacasale hillside: (**a**) remains of the Roccacasale castle, (**b**) S. Michele cave located above the village.

The Morrone slope was ideal for placing some natural terraces and settlements to control the valley routes, just close to Roccacasale. Here, within the Terre Peligne area, the principal north–south transit axes parallel to the Apennines chain (from L'Aquila to Sulmona toward Isernia), known as the "via degli Abruzzi" in the Middle Ages, crossed the east–west transit axis, represented by the Tiburtina-Valeria roads perpendicular to the Apennines chain [36]. This situation is already evident in the protohistoric site of Colle delle Fate and in the triangular fortification of Roccacasale. Colle delle Fate (770 m a.s.l.) preserves the remains of a typical high-ground inhabited area, probably built in the late Bronze Age. It bears evidence of three defensive walls, the last and higher one in polygonal bonding, and two cisterns for rainwater [55].

The Roccacasale castle, which dominates the eponymous village expanding like a fan from the base of the triangular enclosure, represents one of the best-preserved examples in the region of this type of fortification. Its specific shape was determined by the need to adapt the defensive requirements to its position on the slope and the slope shape. Specifically, it is located on the steep fault-related escarpment between two minor valleys perpendicular to the slope. The valleys' incision left a remnant of the fault-related escarpment with triangular shape (also called triangular facet in geomorphology) to which the castle shape is adapted. The upper end of the triangle was reinforced by a high tower meant to protect it from any attacks from higher ground. The original settlement was traced back to between the 10th and the 11th centuries A.D., but in the following centuries, it went through several restorations to be suitable for residential uses, as shown by the structure of the building that sits against the basis of the enclosure [76].

#### *4.2. Prezza: Southern Sector (Orange)*

Moving clockwise, the southern part of the itinerary lies in the municipality of Prezza (Figure 3). It outlines an undulated landscape with several small circular depression and lakes, which have controlled the development of the historical settlements of this area. This arrangement let to explain how the slopes surrounding the Sulmona plain and the Terre Peligne area were deeply affected and shaped by karst processes related to water infiltration in the calcareous rocks.

#### 4.2.1. Geology—The Karst Landscape of the Slopes: The Water Dissolves the Rocks

After observing how ridges and slopes are formed leading to the formation of the Terre Peligne landscape in the eastern sector, this sector begins the explanation of the different processes that have shaped the landscape of the plain and the surrounding ridges. This is the "realm" of karst, the water-related process of chemical dissolution of the calcareous rocks, which has led to the slow and progressive weathering of rocks and the shaping of the ridges (Figure 6a). The karst process has created spectacular landforms, both superficial (e.g., dolines) and underground (e.g., caves) (Figure 6a,b), which have often hosted human settlements in prehistoric times. The orange color is the one coded in geomorphology to represent the karst processes and landforms.

The itinerary moves from the plain toward the surrounding Mt. Prezza slope. In the plain, filled by alluvial gravel sediments, the karst landforms consist of small circular-shaped ponds (also known as sinkholes), large up to about 100 m (Figure 6b,c). They are mostly connected to the collapse of underground caves due to the dissolution of buried calcareous rocks. They were useful in ancient and recent times as water resource and led to the growth of stories and myths around these places.

On the slopes, on calcareous rocks that surround Prezza, the karst landforms consist of large dolines, funnel-shaped depressions, up to over 100 m wide and several tens of meters deep (Figure 6b).

This sector of the itinerary shows the karst landforms affecting the landscape, connected to one of the main processes that, combined with slope gravity-induced and fluvial processes, are responsible for the shaping of the landscape as shown in the following sectors.

**Figure 6.** Prezza areas: (**a**) Didactic scheme of all forms related to karst processes; (**b**) Aerial photo of the Prezza area (from "Portale Cartografico Nazionale"); in orange the main superficial karst forms are highlighted: dolines (continuous line) e sinkholes (line hatched); (**c**) detail of a sinkhole (in the locality "il Colle").

#### 4.2.2. Archeology—The Invisible History

The territory of Prezza has plenty of archeological findings, mostly from the protohistoric and Roman eras, which unfortunately are almost or entirely invisible today, recalling in some way the karst process as a kind of slow "invisible" process affecting the rocks. Anyway, these findings still testify the presence of a diffuse settlement over time, perfectly integrated with the forms and resources of the territory. Near the villages of Castiglione and Castellone, there were probably two protohistoric high-ground sites, and a necropolis with circular tombs (recalling the circular shape of the dolines) traced back to this period (Figure 7).

**Figure 7.** Prezza area: (**a**) the Prezza main village incorporating the old castle; (**b**) rural house in the Colle village.

The Roman Age findings are very numerous, and it is possible to identify at least three medium-small inhabited areas, which were mostly dependent on the exploitation of agricultural resources: one in the district named Colle, one in the hamlet named Campo di Fano, and one at Colle San Giovanni [55]. These were possibly connected to the water resources available in the karst ponds. Here, the presence of a Roman inscription mentioning the names of Magistri Laverneis has prompted the hypothesis that the Roman Vicus of Lavernae, known from the sources, was located in this territory. Prezza is also related to the oldest mention of a castle in the Peligna valley: its fortification was first mentioned in the second half of the IX century [77]. The castle is no longer visible, as it has been "incorporated" and modified by the development of the current residential area. The castle stood on a rocky spur at 580 m a.s.l. (left above the karst landforms), dominating the entire Peligna valley, and it was in sight of other fortifications over the territory (e.g., Roccacasale castle). As the landscape underwent a progressive change due to surface processes (karst one in this area), the castle is the proof of the transformations also occurred in the human settlement layout in this area, determined by the process of fortification during the Middle Ages.

#### *4.3. Raiano: Western Sector (Green)*

The western sector of the itinerary runs from the village of Raiano to the San Venanzio Gorges passing through the spectacular homonymous hermitage (Figure 8a) and the Natural Regional Reserve of the San Venanzio Gorges. This sector is a key area not only in the landscape of the Terre Peligne area but also in the whole Apennines geological and archeological history. This has been a primary area of connection through time as a junction through the geological and landscape history of the chain and as one on the main transit routes across the Apennines through human history. For all these reasons, in this area, a specific geosite was defined and included in the ISPRA Geosite Inventory, and a geological touristic map was previously realized [35].

**Figure 8.** (**a**) Panoramic of the San Venanzio Gorges. (**b**) Contact between continental sedimentary rocks, ancient slope deposits (up), and marine sedimentary rocks, limestones (down). (**c**) Detail of the erosive contact between white calcareous debris (older and coarser) and red limestone debris (more recent and finer). (**d**) Lake deposits in the San Venanzio Gorges and throughout the northern part of the Sulmona Basin.

#### 4.3.1. Geology—From Ancient Rocks to New Mountains

In the rocks and landforms of this sector, the main stages of the geological history of this part of the Apennines, over 200 million years long, can be recognized: from the formation of the rocks to their deformation; from the creation of the Sulmona basin and the surrounding ridges to their progressive shaping by the water of the Aterno River. The dark green color is coded in geomorphology for the water-related landforms.

The calcareous rocks surrounding the gorges bear witness of a very ancient marine environment along scarps surrounding atolls and carbonate platform environments during the Jurassic and Cretaceous. In this paleogeographic environment, a thick sequence of calcareous rocks, which now constitute the backbone of the ridges, were formed over several tens millions of years (from 200 to 10 million years). The calcareous strata show evidence of faults and folds that explain the tectonic deformation of the rocks during the formation of the Apennines chain.

In the lower part of the gorges, toward the Sulmona basin, the contact between different types of rocks is well exposed (Figure 8b). It testifies a fundamental change from marine environment to present mountain landscape: marine calcareous rocks are overlain by breccias, gravels, and sands pertaining to slope and alluvial fan continental deposits, as well as siltstone of lacustrine deposits (developed in the last million year). This contact shows the separation of the ancient Jurassic-Cretaceous marine "world", which led to the formation of the rocks, and the more recent Quaternary continental "world", which led to the deformation and shaping of the mountain landscape and of the Peligno basin.

Through the Quaternary rocks (from breccias to gravel and siltstones), it is possible to understand the landscape changes from the border of the basin, with slope and alluvial fan deposits, to its center with the presence of an ancient lake (Figure 8c,d). Finally, the last step of the geological history is preserved in the San Venanzio Gorges. A primary fault runs along the valley, and the Aterno River has incised a deep incision, a fluvial gorge, in the calcareous rock, while toward the basins has shaped a wide valley. Once again, as in Roccacasale sector, the combination of tectonics and geomorphological processes control the landscape. In this case, it created the San Venanzio Gorges, which, since Roman times and earlier, have been an essential transit way for crossing the Apennines from the Tyrrhenian coast to the Adriatic coast (one of the main Roman consular roads, the Tiburtina-Valeria road, still runs along the gorges).

Moreover, in this sector of the itinerary, the evidence of a further connection between the geological and human history is presented. The ancient Roman Vuccole aqueduct is dug in the calcareous rocks along the slope of the gorges; the San Venanzio Hermitage overlooks the gorges incision; thanks to San Venanzio, there are ancient testimonies of the "lithotherapy", according to which some rocks would have healing power.

#### 4.3.2. Archeology—The Water and the Stone

The Aterno River crosses this part of the Peligna valley and, as seen for the landscape, also its archeological evidence has been deeply characterized by the presence of water, and its relationship with human beings, as it was essential for the settlements. On one side the narrow gorges attracted forms of hermit's lives, which in the Middle Ages reached a peak with the building of the impressive S. Venanzio Hermitage (Figure 9a); the same morphological structure allowed the construction of several mills, which before the industrial revolution represented the most essential "factories", as they were required for the transformation of produce [78]. The presence of the Aterno River provided the catchment for an important aqueduct that during the Roman Age served the Corfinio municipality, through extensive works of hydraulic engineering; that is the Vuccole aqueduct, which was entirely excavated through the limestone [55,79]. Finally, the river has been the major center of the residential area (Vicus/Pagus?) whose memory is preserved today by the church of S. Maria di Contra (Figure 9b). The settlement located along the ancient road connecting the area of Raiano to Vittorito probably dates back to the Roman Age, as confirmed by numerous materials from that age which were reused in the church, as is the case of the roof tiles still covering the oldest part of the building. This settlement was still significant during the Early Middle Ages when the S. Maria church went through substantial building works from the Longobards, who had one of their major power centers (gastald) over the territory in the nearby Corfinio. The splendidly decorated slab that was part of the church ornaments dates back to that period and today is preserved as the altar mensa in the parish church of Raiano [36]. All this evidence shows the close connection between water and landscape evolution from one side and human history from the other.

**Figure 9.** Raiano area: (**a**) San Venanzio Hermitage; (**b**) Santa Maria di Contra Church.

#### *4.4. Vittorito: North-Western Sector (Light Green)*

Moving on, the north-western part of the itinerary runs from the San Venanzio Gorges to the Vittorito village. It provides a scenic view on the present landscape of the Terre Peligne and on the ancient landscape of the Peligno Lake, already outlined in the western sector, which was part of a system of lakes, characterizing the landscape of the central Apennines during Middle Pleistocene (~0.8–0.3 million years ago; Figure 10a) [38].

#### 4.4.1. Geology—Appearance and Disappearance of a Lake

The panoramic view from this part of the itinerary is particularly meaningful. It covers the entire Terre Peligne area from Roccacasale to Prezza, Raiano, and Corfinio, and from the Mt. Morrone Ridge to the Sulmona basin (Figure 10b). However, the landscape that can be observed today allows viewing of the evidence of an ancient landscape resulting from a long history dominated first by an ancient lake (the light green color characterizes the lake environments) that occupied the Sulmona intermontane basin, and then by rivers that first filled in the lake and then incised its sediments. In the landforms and the rocks of this sector of the itinerary, the remains of the ancient lake that occupied the entire basin during the Middle Pleistocene (~0.8–0.3 My) can be observed (Figure 10a,b). The valley sides of the Aterno River hide lacustrine deposits as those seen in the Raiano area (Figure 8d). At the top of the valley sides, a sharp scarp borders a vast plain known as Sulmona "Upper Terrace" [50], hanging 90–100 m above the Aterno fluvial plain, developed on ancient (late Middle Pleistocene) fluvial conglomerate deposits (Figure 10a,b). These deposits can be directly observed along the itinerary (Figure 10c) and outline the disappearance of the lake, filled in by a large fluvial and alluvial plain, which covered the entire basin about 100–300 thousand years ago (late Middle Pleistocene). In the last part of the itinerary is shown how, from this time on, the entire landscape of the Terre Peligne has been dominated by the rivers that have incised the valleys and shaped the landscape that is observed today. This evolution created the present landscape composed of flat surfaces or "terraces" and broad water-rich valleys that made this area very suitable for human settlements since prehistorical times.

**Figure 10.** (**a**) Terre Peligne area landscape during Middle Pleistocene (~0.8–0.3 million years ago), while filled in by the Peligno Lake. Calcareous rocks (green) formed the backbone of the ridges and were cut by faults, and covered by slope deposits and alluvial fans, flowing into the lake and the lacustrine deposits (light blue). (**b**) Panoramic view of the Terre Peligne area outlining the "Upper Terrace" on the fluvial deposits covering the lacustrine deposits. (**c**) Vittorito (375 m a.s.l.), conglomerate rocks on the "Upper Surface" referable to the fluvial deposits filling the Peligno Lake during late Middle Pleistocene (anthropic caves are dug into them).

#### 4.4.2. Archeology—Men and Highlands

The Vittorito area has returned archeological findings attesting the presence of human already in the protohistoric age, with a marked propensity to occupy the "terraces" delimiting this area of the valley and originated from the Pleistocene landscape evolution. Some remaining walls in polygonal stonework (currently no longer visible) testify a protohistoric settlement on the Castellano mount. The area where today stands the San Michele Arcangelo church (Figure 11a), which has retained significant evidence from the Early Middle Ages, was the location of a famous sanctuary dedicated to Hercules, occupying a dominant position over a settlement stretching along the Aterno River [36]. Still in the Middle Ages, on the northern side of the Castellano mount, the castle of Vittorito was erected, which later originated the present village (Figure 11b). Today, only a quadrangular tower, dominating the village, remains of the medieval castle. The fortification was shaped like a triangular enclosure, and the village expanded "fanwise" along the sides of the mountain. The fortification was wide enough and divided into residential and functional buildings [76]. The castle tower, *Turris Bectorrita*, was first mentioned in a document from the 1098 A.D. *Chronicon Casauriense*, which indicated, among other things, that it was the property of the Bishop of Valva (present Corfinio). On the edges of the Vittorito village stands the S. Michele Arcangelo church, built in the Middle Ages just over an old pagan temple. Several architectural fragments and funerary inscriptions have been reused in its masonry works. One find of particular interest is an Early Middle Ages slab still holding the signature of the stonecutter URSUS [36].

This intense occupation through time, mainly developed on the upper "terrace", again confirms and explains, in an easy to understand way, how strong the connection between the human activities and the ancient landscape evolution has been.

**Figure 11.** Vittorito area: (**a**) the San Michele Church; (**b**) the medieval castle above the present-day village.

#### *4.5. Corfinio: Northern Sector (Blue)*

The "Terre Peligne fan" ends in the northern sector. It started in Roccacasale, explaining how the landscape of the Terre Peligne was first formed by the tectonics along the Mt. Morrone normal faults. It ends in Corfinio explaining how, particularly in the last stage, the landscape has been shaped by rivers and fluvial processes after being occupied by a large lake for a long time and how this has controlled the occupation of the area in historical times.

#### 4.5.1. Geology—From Ancient to New Rivers

In this area, the itinerary runs across the Aterno River valley and explains the last stages of the landscape evolution (meaning the last 100 thousand years), dominated by river-related processes (blue is the coded color for rivers and hydrography in geomorphological conventions). A large fluvial-alluvial plain was formed in the late Middle Pleistocene (300–100 thousand years ago), as seen in Vittorito sector. In the Late Pleistocene (last 100 thousand years), this plane was carved by the incision of the main rivers incising the Aterno and Sagittario gorges forming large valleys in the Sulmona basin and leaving the "Upper Terrace" hanging (Figure 12a [50]). Further stages of fluvial sedimentation and river incision formed a second smaller hanging surface, known as "Lower Terrace", preserved on the valley sides, and the present-day fluvial plain (Figure 12b). This arrangement explains how alternating incision and sedimentation have formed a typical staircase landscape in the main valleys of the Terre Peligne area (Figure 12b) and how the fluvial "terraces" are imprinted in the landscape [80].

The landscape shape, defined by planar surfaces hanging over the present valleys and rich of ancient and present water, was very favorable and largely contributed to the development of human settlement since prehistorical times. This arrangement outlines a further connection between landscape evolution and human history, which is explained in the archeological sites.

**Figure 12.** (**a**) Terre Peligne area landscape during Late Pleistocene (~100 thousand years ago), during the incision of the river valleys. Fluvial deposits (pale orange) filled the river valleys incised in the lacustrine deposits. (**b**) Geomorphological scheme explaining the fluvial terraces (Upper and Lower Terrace) along the Aterno River.

#### 4.5.2. Archeology—From the Italics' Capital to Pentima

The wide fluvial "terrace" dominating the center of the Terre Peligne area has been occupied since protohistoric times by the principal settlement in the area, Corfinio. This settlement initially occupied the northernmost edge of the fluvial terrace, for its evident defensive qualities, which in the Middle Ages prompted the construction of the Pentima castle (Figure 13a). During the Roman Age and especially after the Social War the city expanded to the south. At this time, Corfinio was the capital of the Italic League and contributed to the first formulation of the name "ITALIA". The terrace was progressively occupied with monumental buildings, known from epigraphic evidence, and a few archeological remains, punctuating the present village (the temple, mosaic Domus, Morroni) [55]. From late antiquity to the XI century the southern area of the city, along the Tiburtina road, acquired a unique role as the seat of both secular and religious powers and took the name of Valva, which is still connected to the magnificent Romanesque complex of S. Pelino (Figure 13b) [36,81,82]. In the area currently occupied by the cathedral, significant archeological evidence exists concerning a Paleochristian funerary area probably related to a venerated burial site; a fortification incorporating the funerary and worship space and connected to the ancient Roman campus, possibly used between the end of Late Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages as "urban" settlement; and finally a *palatium* from the Longobard period. This latter was coexisting with the church built in honor of the martyred Saint Pelino, already in the Early Middle Ages, to define the institution in the southern suburb of Corfinio during the Roman Age, a pole of civil powers (the gastald and later as a county) and religious ones (diocese). This controlled a wide internal area of Abruzzo, from the Popoli Gorges to the high Sangro River valley, from the Morrone to the Sirente mountains.

**Figure 13.** Corfinio area: (**a**) a *castrum Pentime* drone view; (**b**) the valvensis complex of San Pelino.

#### **5. SWOT Analysis**

To evaluate the real potential of geological heritage and archeological heritage development in the Terre Peligne area, an analysis was performed summarizing and comparing strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats (SWOT analysis) of the integrated itinerary (see among many others [83,84]).

#### *5.1. Strengths*

The itinerary integrates geological and human history in a single framework. Moreover, in geological, archeological, and landscape terms, it is an itinerary of connections through time from hundreds million years to present (i.e., between rocks, landscapes, ancient human histories and present municipalities and park reserve areas). The Terre Peligne area intersects two of the main national and regional parks of central Italy (Maiella National Park and Velino-Sirente Regional Park) and are very close (10–30 km) to two other main national parks (Abruzzo, Lazio, Molise National Park, and Gran Sasso Laga Mountains National Park). Moreover, it intersects the Gole di San Venanzio Natural Reserve. This might provide the support of already existing infrastructures and dissemination policies. One of the main highways crossing central Italy from Rome to the Adriatic coast passes through the Terre Peligne area and easily connect this area to main cities and main airports (>60 km local airport; 180 km international airport) and railway stations. A national road (a former Roman consular road) and two interregional railways pass through the area too. This provides an easy accessibility to the area. Several archeological and geological studies and projects have been carried out in the area in collaboration between local authorities, universities (e.g., University of Chieti-Pescara, University La Sapienza of Rome, University of RomaTre and many others) and research centers (e.g., ISPRA, INGV). These provided valuable scientific information, which already provides a high-level knowledge of this area and are converted into the itinerary for scientific dissemination. The results of scientific and dissemination studies and activities were already presented at national and international scientific congresses. The itinerary combines "on-site" tools (totems and panels) and "digital" tools (explanatory material readable through smartphones and tablets) and might attract people of a wide range of age and digital alphabetization. There are pre-existing cultural, geological, archeological, and landscape attractions and many tools and features already exist and focusing on these valuable elements, such as already known archeological sites (e.g., the Corfinio area and San Pelino), museums (e.g., the Corfinio Archeological Museum [75]) and geosites (e.g., the Gole di San Venanzio geosite [35]), as well as books and geotourist maps [34]. This provides a pre-existing tourist development of this area, which results in at least several thousands of visitors per year in these specific sites. Moreover, local schools have started performing field trip and visits in the Terre Peligne area.

#### *5.2. Weaknesses*

The realization of the itinerary and the emplacements of all the structures is not completed. The itinerary is supported by a rather small group of people in the local municipalities and in the universities involved. It is mostly based on regional funding. An actual marketing strategy has not been activated so far. A small reach of the road included in the itinerary is closed due to safety reason related to landslide risk waiting to be fixed; however, an alternative path is possible. There is a poor connection between the itinerary and the other local values, specifically in terms of quality food and wine. More in general, a management system for the identification, assessment, and divulgation of the itinerary and its values in connection with the surrounding areas is still lacking. Community residents have not yet realized the high value and the potential opportunities of geological and archeological heritage and still have poor cognition and consciousness concerning its protection.

#### *5.3. Opportunities*

The highway, roads and railways, provide good public accessibility opportunities. The numbers of visitors already coming in the Terre Peligne area could be surely improved by creating a network connecting the "Fan of the Terre Peligne" itinerary with the park and reserve areas in the area. The itinerary focused on a large territorial diffusion networking the resources of the entire Peligna valley, including connections to other internal areas of the Abruzzo and the Apennines area. This might contribute to induce a tourist flow from the main parks of central Italy through the Terre Peligne area. This flow might support an expansion of the tourism offer and an increase of economic opportunities and possible investments, in terms of hospitality (hotels, bed and breakfast, agritourisms, restaurants, etc.), existing and new cultural events, etc. This can also create new jobs as local geological–archeological touristic guides. The economic-touristic opportunities can be specifically supported and increased by integrated management strategy of the archeological and geological itinerary in connection with the surrounding national, regional parks, and natural reserves, with the local landscape features, and the local quality food and wine values.

#### *5.4. Threats*

The final realization of the itinerary and the emplacements of all the structures depends on the Terre Peligne Association and on the local municipalities and is mostly supported by regional funding. This can result in management problems (many bodies involved) and in irregular funding (according to the variable funding opportunities and to the variable local-regional political conditions). If an integrated management strategy is not arranged, overlapping management of the geological and archeological sites (e.g., from local municipalities, reserve areas and parks) can result in a poor enhancement of the "Fan of the Terre Peligne" itinerary as a connection through time between rocks, landscapes, ancient human histories, and present municipalities and park reserve areas.

#### **6. Concluding Remarks**

The "Fan of the Terre Peligne" is an archeological-geological integrated touristic itinerary along the northern part of the Sulmona intermontane basin in the central-eastern Apennines (Abruzzo). It is organized in five thematic sectors focused on the main elements of the geological history and landscape evolution of this area and outlining the joining of archeological and geological-geomorphological features of the Terre Peligne. Through a combined arrangement of "on-site" and "digital" tools, it contributes to the valorization of the geological and archeological sites and to make them understandable for the general public, through lay language and reliable information. The main stages of the history of the landscape are described, from the formation of the rocks of the mountain ridges (in marine environment in Jurassic-Miocene times) to their deformation, along thrust and folds and normal faults (Miocene-Quaternary); from the formation of the mountain ridges to the shaping of the landscape mostly due to the competition of gravitational, fluvial and karst processes and of recent-active tectonics and seismicity (Quaternary). The tectonics and seismicity are explained as processes inducing seismic hazard but also as positive elements that formed the landscape of the Apennines. For each of the sectors and in the entire "fan" the close connection between man and landscape is revealed in different perspectives outlining that the presence of man since prehistoric times has given rise to a careful interaction with the territory. The landscape is dominated by high standing rocky ridges surrounding the Sulmona intermontane basin, which through history have been used for defensive purposes, castles, and hermitages. Conversely, the low standing hills and plains have been advantageously exploited for farming, as shown by the terracing and the remains from the Roman centuriation, while the valleys and gorges, rich of water resource, have been used as transit ways across the Apennines. This latter element also explains the close connection between the historical economic development and the landscape shape. The archeological heritage, which enriches the entire area, is mostly centered on

Corfinio resulting from historical events in which the city was the protagonist as well as from its placement at the cross of north–south and east–west transit ways across the Apennines.

Therefore, the itinerary features connections among different elements: ancient marine geological environments and recent continental landscapes; between Tyrrhenian and Adriatic coasts through main transit ways across the Apennines from historical to present times; among mountain rugged and plain gentle landscapes; and among the main park areas and natural reserves of the Abruzzo Apennines. It outlines specifically the connection, through time, of water and rocks with the landscape and human history.

In summary, the itinerary mostly focuses on the territory with the intent to network the specificities and resources of the Peligna valley, without neglecting the ramifications and connections to the nearby areas (territorial diffusion). From this point of view, the geological and landscape elements joined to the archeological heritage are the aspects that best showcase the specificities of this territory taking into account a very wide diachrony, so as to give greater prominence to the conditions and times that have shaped this territory in its present forms. This "account", as well as the connection between landscape and human history and development, have been rendered to be understandable to the general public. This approach, based on scientifically correct information, is an instrument to involve the local population, schools, and tourists and to sensitize them about the "history" of their territory and the related hazard, as well as a useful instrument for enhancing tourism inducing direct and indirect economic return. The purpose of the study is in line with the stream of similar initiatives aimed at the knowledge, valorization, and fruition of the internal mountain areas. Just to remain within the Abruzzo region, among many others see the cases within the Parks of Majella and Velino-Sirente [6,85], or the case of the APSAT (Ambiente e Paesaggi dei Siti d'Altura Trentini) Project for the Trentino region [86] or the transhumance route in southern Italy [87] at international level (e.g., Egypt, Russia, Malta [7,88,89]).

The "Fan of the Terre Peligne" features a strong territorial nature and diffusion, connecting the Peligna valley with other internal areas of the Abruzzo and the whole Apennines area. The SWOT analysis revealed the great strength of the itinerary, in terms of integration of different themes and features, high accessibility, connection with already existing reserve and park areas and tourist attractions. This can lead to wide opportunities for networking the itinerary to the surrounding parks and reserves and for increasing the tourist flow between them, also creating new development and jobs not conflicting with the existing one but enhancing them. This can largely support local communities and economic development [3]. However, the analysis summarized also the weaknesses (e.g., itinerary structures not completed, lacking of an integrated management system) and the threats to be faced (e.g., completion of the itinerary depending on irregular funding and results connected to an integrated management, which should overcome overlapping management from local bodies), On this basis, the itinerary wants to be a resource and instrument to contribute to the popularization and enhancement of the cultural heritage of the human and geological history of one of the key areas of the central Apennines. Finally, improving sustainable tourism developed on valuable and less-known sites, the itinerary aims to strengthen the awareness toward the themes of natural hazards and risks of the territory increasing the development and resilience of the inner areas of the Apennines.

**Author Contributions:** Conceptualization, E.M. and M.C.S.; methodology, E.M., M.C.S., S.A., T.P. and M.B.; investigation, S.A., T.P. and V.M.; data curation, T.P. and V.M.; writing—original draft preparation, S.A., T.P. and G.E.; writing—review and editing, T.P., M.C.S., E.M., G.E. and M.B.; supervision, E.M. and M.C.S.; funding acquisition, E.M. and M.C.S.

**Funding:** This research was funded by Regione Abruzzo, "Progetto di valorizzazione e sviluppo dei beni storico-culturali, archeologici, ambientali delle tradizioni delle Terre dei Peligni", Reg. Abruzzo PAR FSC 2007–2013. L.A. 1.2.4.a. "Definizione ed attuazione di un programma di sviluppo della Valle Peligna". The APC was funded by University "G. d'Annunzio" of Chieti-Pescara (Miccadei fund, and Piacentini fund).

**Acknowledgments:** The authors wish to thank the municipalities of Raiano, Roccacasale, Prezza, Vittorito, Corfinio and the Terre Peligne Association for the support in the project and the study for the realization of the itinerary. The authors also wish to thank the Cartographic Office of Abruzzo Region using the Open Geodata Portal (http://opendata.regione.abruzzo.it/), for providing the topographic data and orthophotos used for this work.

**Conflicts of Interest:** The authors declare no conflict of interest.

#### **References**


© 2019 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

### *Article* **Devil Landforms as Resources for Geotourism Development: An Example from Southern Apulia (Italy)**

#### **Paolo Sansò**

Dipartimento di Scienze e Tecnologie Biologiche e Ambientali, Università del Salento, 73100 Lecce, Italy; paolo.sanso@unisalento.it

Received: 20 June 2019; Accepted: 21 July 2019; Published: 26 July 2019

**Abstract:** The landscape of *Murge Tarantine* limestone ridge (southern Apulia, Italy) is marked by the presence of an isolated relief showing a singular shape and name, the *Monte del Diavolo* (i.e., the Devil's Mount). The *Monte del Diavolo* is located in a very interesting area from a geological point of view since it shows an E–W trending high-fault scarp, the morphological effect of the right-lateral transtensive North Salento Fault Zone. The *Monte del Diavolo* is a small isolated conical relief reaching at its top 115 m above m.s.l.; it elevates about 20 m from the surrounding plain surface, stretching at about 95 m altitude. Its evolution has been influenced by the occurrence of strongly cemented *breccia* deposits, most likely due to cave roof collapse and calcite precipitation, which are more resistant to the karst denudation process than surrounding limestones. This paper would be the first step towards the cultural promotion of the *Monte del Diavolo* area, which is marked by geological and geomorphological peculiar features and by a relevant archaeological and natural heritage as well.

**Keywords:** isolated relief; geological heritage; southern Apulia; Italy

#### **1. Introduction**

Geotourism can be defined as "the provision of interpretative and service facilities for geosites and geomorphosites and their encompassing topography, together with their associated in situ and ex situ artefacts, to constituency-build for their conservation by generating appreciation, learning and research by and for current and future generations" [1] (p. 11). It employs an easily and globally accurate translatable vocabulary for the nature, focus and location of modern geology-based geotourism with a geoconservation purpose.

Geotourists can be divided in two groups, "casual" and "dedicated" [2]. The former occasionally visit geosites and geomorphosites mainly for recreation and pleasure; populist guides, trails and visitor centres have recently been provided for them. The latter intentionally visit geosites for the purpose of personal educational or intellectual improvement and enjoyment; field guides and journal papers are a long-standing provision for them.

The geotourism offer is usually based on geoheritage sites of preeminent scientific value which directly translate into educational opportunities. However, at least from the perspective of tourism industry, the scenic component of geosites is equally important since modern geotourism provision meets geotourists' needs by attracting them to particular localities with spectacular or readily-appreciated geomorphological features [3]. This refers particularly to landforms marked by intriguing, unusual or even bizarre shapes that justifies the "devil" name attributed to them by local communities or first explorers. For example, the Times World Atlas reports numerous "devil" landforms such as mountains, hills, gorges, lakes and deserts. Some examples are the Devil's City, a Serbian area marked out by about 200 earth pillars or the Devil's Balls, a number of spheroidal boulders

occurring at Northern Territories (Australia). However, the most famous devil's landform in the world is most likely the Devil's Tower placed in the Wyoming (United States), whose top surface has been the theatre of the first close meeting of mankind with aliens in the Spielberg's movie "Close Encounters of the Third Kind" of 1997. This spectacular isolated relief of cylindrical shape shows its flat top surface at 1558 m altitude and elevates about 400 m from the surrounding plain. The sub-vertical slopes of this laccolith are marked by a well-developed columnar jointing. This relief is placed inside a natural park which receives about 400,000 visitors each year.

Thanks to their peculiar morphology, "devil" landforms can attract tourists whose interest in Earth history is minimal or non-existent. Then, an opportunity arises to provide more in-depth explanation and interpretation. Thus, it is assumed that telling the story about rocks may be easier at natural rock outcrops rather than in quarries, particularly since in the former case the story would be more comprehensive, involving near-surface processes and landform evolution too. In addition, strange landforms usually give rise to strange stories so that Serbian earth pillars are seen by local people as petrified men or aliens, Australian spheroidal blocks are the Rainbow Snake eggs, and columnar jointing at Devil's Tower are the scratches produced by the paws of a huge grizzly which tried to catch seven little girls saved by the Great Spirit on the relief flat top surface. For this, devil landforms are generally useful links with the cultural heritage of the area, covering in this way a leading role in the geotourism development of the area. Geotourism, in fact, allows tourists to appreciate local geology but also to better understand its relationship to other assets of the territory, such as biodiversity, archaeological and cultural values [4]. The geotourism offer should thus include abiotic, biotic and cultural components. These last ones include cultural, spiritual and historic meanings (e.g., folklore, sacred sites and sense of place) [5].

This paper reports the results of the geomorphological analysis carried out in a coastal area of southern Apulia area which is marked by a singular isolated small relief, the *Monte del Diavolo* (i.e., the "Devil's Mount") (Figure 1). Research was carried out by means of field survey integrated with interpretation of aerial photos; an accurate bibliographic analysis allowed data collection about geological features and archaeological and cultural heritage of the area as well.

Notwithstanding its morphological peculiarity, *Monte del Diavolo* has received little attention from researchers so far [6] and it has not been enclosed in the sites of the relevant geological interest inventory realized by Regione Puglia Administration [7]. Nevertheless, the *Monte del Diavolo* relief belongs to the history of the geological knowledge development of Apulia region since Earl Michele Milano (1820), in his pioneering paper about the geology of this region [8], wrongly considered *Monte del Diavolo* relief a geological proof of past volcanic activity in southern Apulia. He reported smoke coming from surficial fractures of the small relief as well as some strange lights; moreover, he compared the singular relief near *Manduria* village to the homonymous relict volcano placed in the *Verona* area and to the *Fossa del Diavolo* (i.e., the Devil's Graben) at *Lipari* island, where, according to the local traditions, flames came out from a pothole. A further evidence of *Monte del Diavolo* volcanic origin would have been the presence of a sulphurous water spring at the nearby *Li Cuturi* wood which dried up in the 1778.

A detailed geomorphological study of the area was carried out aiming to fill up this gap. Collated data are the first step towards the construction of a geotourism offer in this area, which is already a well-known tourism locality.

In addition, the *Monte del Diavolo* isolated relief is placed in an area of high archaeological interest (*Li Castelli* locality), marked by the remains of a Messapic settlement referred to the period spanning between VIII century to III century B.C. [9] and includes some regional natural reserves (*Riserva naturale regionale orientata del Litorale Tarantino Orientale*) of high ecological value. Finally, it is crossed by several hiking trails and biking routes, which allow its natural heritage to be exploited in a sustainable way.

**Figure 1.** A view of Monte del Diavolo from SE. The relief elevates about 20 m from the surrounding plain surface.

#### **2. Geotourism in Apulia Region**

The Apulia region is among the most visited Italian regions, with more than 15 million visitors recorded in 2018. The local tourism industry is rapidly growing with a tourism presence increase of about 12.2% in the period spanning from 2015 to 2018. Nowadays it represents about 5% of added regional value [10].

Data collated by Regione Puglia Administration show that domestic tourists prevail (about 80%); they concentrate during summer because of the attractiveness of local beaches, the high quality of coastal waters, and the eno-gastronomic tradition as well. On the other hand, international tourists are more interested in the cultural and natural heritage of the region and their presence is recorded on a wider period of the year spanning from March to October.

The Apulia region shows a rich geological heritage and geodiversity since it comprises foreland–foredeep–chain domains. It has been the focus of the Puglia Regional Lawn, 33/2009 "*Tutela e valorizzazione del patrimonio geologico e speleologico*" (Conservation and Promotion of Geological and Speleological Heritage), which promoted the compilation of a regional geosites inventory comprising 440 records [7] and economic support to a number of measures for their valorisation and protection.

However, the geotourism potential of this region is largely unexploited since an organized geotourism provision is presently restricted to very few spots, like the Castellana Caves (more than 320,000 visitors in the 2018) or Zinzulusa Cave (more than 100,000 visitors per year). Guided field trips for the public, often carried out in the context of national and international events dedicated to geology themes as well as those organized by cultural associations, do not improve significantly the current situation.

#### **3. Geological and Geomorphological Outline of the Area**

The *Monte del Diavolo* is placed between the *Manduria* village (Province of *Taranto*) and the coastline (Figure 2), at the easternmost part of the *Murge Tarantine*, one of the five morphological districts recognized in southern Apulia [11] (Figure 3), a narrow and flat peninsula stretching between the Ionian and the Adriatic Seas.

**Figure 2.** Geographical position of Monte del Diavolo area.

**Figure 3.** The landscape of southern Apulia can be subdivided in five morphological districts. In particular, district 1 is characterized by a low-elevated Middle Pleistocene sedimentary plain gently sloping from west to east; it is drained by a relict hydrographic network flowing toward the Adriatic coast. District 2 emerged most likely at the beginning of the Pleistocene period and is mostly shaped on pre-Quaternary carbonatic rocks. District 3 is marked by wide sedimentary plains emerged definitively during the Middle Pleistocene, interposed among NW–SE trending morphostructural carbonatic ridges, the *Serre*. District 4 comprises the *Murge Tarantine* area, a low-elevated ridge stretching in the W–E direction, placed between the *Limitone dei Greci* scarp and the Ionian coastline. Finally, district 5 shows a well-known sequence of Middle–Upper Pleistocene marine terraces. The A–B line is the track of the topographic section reported in Figure 4.

The *Murge Tarantine* area (district 4 in Figure 3) is made of a low-elevated and strongly asymmetric ridge, stretching in the W–E direction, interposed between the *Murge* highplain, to the north, which is considered a horst bordered by NW–SE fault scarps [12], and the *Salento* peninsula, to the southeast, marked by narrow horsts and grabens elongated in NNW–SSE direction. These two different areas are separated by the *Brindisi-Taranto* plain which is strongly affected by an E–W tectonic alignment [13,14], the North Salento Fault Zone, a dextral strike-slip fault of regional importance (Figure 5).

From a geomorphological point of view, the *Murge Tarantine* area is a relief elongated in the E–W direction interposed between the *Brindisi-Taranto* plain to the north and the coastline to the south. Its western border is the *S. Giorgio Jonico* NNW–SSE horst whereas its altitude gradually lowers eastward. Its cross profile is highly asymmetric since the northern slope very gently dips toward the *Limitone dei Greci* scarp, marked by the *Oria* relict high dune belt, whereas southward it shows a steep slope bordered by three low elevated and narrow marine terraces (Figure 4).

**Figure 4.** Topographic section of *Murge Tarantine* area. The *Limitone dei Greci* scarp is the northern border of this area and is marked by the *Oria* Middle Pleistocene dune belt. The top surface of *Murge Tarantine* is joined to the Ionian coastline by a steep fault scarp.

**Figure 5.** Tectonic scheme of Salento Peninsula (from [14], mod.).

The local relief is in detail articulated by a sequence of NNW–SSE elongated graben and horst, the first ones filled up by Plio-pleistocene sediments and the latter made of Cretaceous limestones.

### **4. The** *Monte del Diavolo* **Local Geology and Landscape**

Different rock units crop out in the *Monte del Diavolo* area (Figure 6). The oldest one is constituted by the *Calcari di Altamura,* a Late Cretaceous limestone unit characterized by shallowing upward cycles with rudists facies and developed in inner carbonate-platform environments [15]. It is covered by three younger formations: the *Calcarenite di Gravina* formation, the Marine Terraced Deposits and the

Aeolianites. The *Calcarenite di Gravina* formation is a very fossiliferous biodetritical calcareous sediment with *Artica islandica* Linneo deposited during the Lower Pleistocene. Marine Terraced Deposits formed during the Middle–Upper Pleistocene due to the superimposition of glacioeustatic sea level change and regional uplift [16,17]; they are made of bioclastic grainstones with high fossil content. Aeolianites are often associated to Marine Terraced Deposits.

**Figure 6.** Geological map of *Monte del Diavolo* area. Legend: **a**—*Calcare di Altamura* unit (Late Cretaceous); **b**—*Calcareniti di Gravina* unit (Plio-Pleistocene); **c**— Marine Terraced Deposits (Middle—Upper Pleistocene); **d**—Aeolian deposits (Middle Pleistocene—Holocene).

The local landscape of *Monte del Diavolo* area is dominated by degraded fault scarps; a relict top palaeosurface and a sequence of marine terraces have been also recognized.

The field survey along with aerial photo analysis point out that fault scarps can be clustered into three main systems (Figure 7). The first one is about E–W oriented and comprises two main scarps which constitute the southern steep border of *Murge Tarantine* ridge and strongly influence shoreline position along *Campomarino*—*S. Pietro in Bevagna* coastal tract.

**Figure 7.** Main fault scarps detected in the *Monte del Diavolo* area. Legend: **a**—elevation point; **b**—main fault scarp; **c**—scarp probably due to fault activity.

The other two systems are easily recognizable on the *Murge Tarantine* ridge, whereas they are less evident on the low elevated coastal area. The second system comprises NW–SE and NE–SW fault scarps which produce horst and graben structures in the area closest to the *Monte del Diavolo* relief. The last system, showing WNW–ESE- and WSW–ENE-oriented faults, is responsible for the development of horst structures (*Monte Bagnolo* and *Monte della Marina*) and indents the main complex tectonic scarp which locally divides the coastal plain from the *Murge Tarantine* top surface. Fault scarps belonging to the E–W tectonic alignment clearly cuts the other two fault scarp systems producing the main features of the landscape. They are most likely the most evident morphological effects of North Salento Fault Zone occurring in the region.

The landscape of *Monte del Diavolo* area is marked at the highest parts of *Murge Tarantine* ridge by the remains of an undulating palaeosurface showing a number of low dome-shaped reliefs whose elevation is comprised between 124 m, to the west, and 100 m to the east (Figure 8): *Monte Bagnolo* (124 m), *Casina del Vento* (108 m), *Monte dei Castelli* (112 m), *Monte dei Serpenti* (109 m), *Monte della Marina* (100 m) (Figure 8).

**Figure 8.** Geomorphological map of *Monte del Diavolo* area. Legend: **a**—denudation surface; **b**—undulating palaeosurface; **c**—marine terrace; **d**—dune belt; **e**—fault scarp; **f**—degraded fault scarp; **g**—elevation point; **h**—main dome-shaped reliefs: 1 *Monte Furlano* (101 m), 2 *Monte Bagnolo* (124 m), 3 Unnamed (126 m), 4 *Monte dei Castelli* (112 m), 5 Unnamed (117 m), 6 Unnamed (117 m), 7 *Monte dei Serpenti* (109 m), 8 *Monti d'Arena* (91 m), 9 *Casina del Vento* (107 m), 10 *Monte del Diavolo* (115 m), 11 Unnamed (103 m), 12 *Cannelli* (99 m), *Monte della Marina* (100 m).

Three narrow eastward sloping marine terraces mark the area stretching between the *Murge Tarantine* ridge and the shoreline. The first and the highest one is mainly a narrow abrasion platform cut on the limestone basement between 65 and 45 m above m.s.l. The second and the third marine terraces shows a thin sedimentary body covering Mesozoic limestone as well as Lower Quaternary deposits. The higher of two stretches between 32 m above m.s.l. to the west and 15 m above m.s.l. to the east whereas the lower one can be recognized between 12 and 3 m of elevation.

Relict dune belts are associated to marine terraces. They have been found at *Specchiarica* locality, where the maximum altitude of 27 m is reached, and near *Mass. Mirante* locality (19 m).

A continuous well-developed mid-Holocene dune belt, up to 14 m high and 150 m wide, borders the present shoreline [18].

### **5. The** *Monte del Diavolo* **Isolated Relief Morphology and Evolution**

The *Monte del Diavolo* isolated relief is placed on the top surface of *Monti Castelli* limestone horst, close to two main fault scarps. It elevates about 20 m from a plain surface, stretching around 95 m altitude, reaching, at its top, 115 m above m.s.l.

The *Monte del Diavolo* shows an oblique conical shape; its ellipsoidal basal area has a major axis 1700 m long and a minor one 900 m long. The steeper southern slope has a mean inclination of 5.7%, whereas the northern gentler slope is about 2.8% (Figures 9 and 10).

**Figure 9.** Contour lines at *Monte del Diavolo* locality. Dotted lines are the tracks of topographical profiles reported in Figure 10. Oriented bold line is a low incised stream.

**Figure 10.** Topographical profiles of *Monte del Diavolo*.

In the area, Mesozoic limestones (*Calcare di Altamura* formation) widely crop out. However, at *Monte del Diavolo*, a massive and well-cemented grain-supported *breccia* made of hazel limestone clasts of decametric size was detected; voids are filled with a matrix-supported finer *breccia* marked by iron oxides and centimetric limestone clasts (Figure 11).

**Figure 11.** A view of the very well cemented breccia deposits cropping out at the top of *Monte del Diavolo*.

According to the classification of palaeo cave deposits proposed by [19] the detected clastic deposits can be referred to the coarse-clast chaotic *breccia* facies produced by cave ceiling and wall collapse. This facies is characterized by a mass of very poorly sorted, granule- to boulder-sized chaotic breccia clasts (i.e., clasts approximately 0.3 to 3 m long), that form a ribbon to tabular shaped body as much as 15 m across and hundreds of meters long.

The deposit is affected by a sub-vertical system of joints dipping northward (Figure 12); joints widening due to present karst solution is responsible for the detachment of *breccia* blocks by gravity (Figure 13).

**Figure 12.** A set of high angle joints dipping northward affects breccia deposits so that *Monte del Diavolo* developed an asymmetric transverse profile.

**Figure 13.** *Monte del Diavolo* slopes are covered by sparse breccia blocks due to rockfalls produced by the widening of joints by karst solution.

Unfortunately, the exposure conditions do not allow the geometry of *Monte del Diavolo breccia* deposits to be reconstructed. However, a sharp change in the slope angle would suggest that breccia deposits crop out in the upper half of the studied relief.

The lithological difference between the layered limestone bedrock cropping out widely around *Monte del Diavolo* area and the *breccia* deposits detected at its top could explain the genesis of this isolated relief (Figure 14). *Breccia* deposits are most likely the filling of karst underground voids and are more resistant to denudation processes than the limestone bedrock. The progressive lowering of ground surface, mainly due to surface karst processes, has been faster in the bedrock than areas where *breccia* deposits crop out so that an isolated relief gradually has been shaped. The asymmetry of the relief can be attributed to the high-angle joint system that affects *breccia* deposits miming stratification, so that a dip and a scarp slope developed.

Small isolated hills due to this particular evolution have been not recorded yet in classical karst areas. However, small hills with a conical or truncated conical shape, or similar to a dome or a tower. have been surveyed in the *Santa Ninfa* karst area (*Trapani* province, Sicily) [20]. Their origin is due to the evolution of jointed evaporitic limestone caprock which is deformed along its edge because of chemical erosion of underlying gypsum deposits. Chemical erosion is linked to water infiltrating through the carbonate caprock, which is higher in the area close to its border, whereas it is lower in its centre.

In particular, [21] defines karst features like *Monte del Diavolo* as "*breccia* pipe hills", which are areas of relatively high relief in gypsum karst areas that result from the selective denudation of *breccias* composed of different rock types. *Breccias* originate due to the collapse of gypsiferous beds and other rocks into cavities formed within deep-seated gypsum beds. Such *breccias* commonly have a pipe-like form and locally they can offer more resistance to erosion than do the surrounding rocks. In conclusion, the *Monte del Diavolo* isolated relief can be defined as a "*breccia* hills" due to differential karstic processes in a limestone area.

**Figure 14.** Model of the geomorphological evolution of *Monte del Diavolo*. **Stage A**: A cave develops in the vadose zone into the *Calcari di Altamura* limestone (**a**). The cave is partly filled with coarse *breccia* deposits and speleothems (**b**). **Stage B:** The lowering of the ground surface is accompanied by joints development due to fault activity (**c**). **Stage C**: Cave *breccia* deposits offer greater resistance to the karst dissolution process than surrounding limestones so that ground surface lowering led to the development of a small isolated relief, the *Monte del Diavolo*.

### **6. Developing Geotourism in the** *Monte del Diavolo* **Area**

The *Monte del Diavolo* isolated relief could be a valuable source for the development of a local geotourism offer since it shows a number of favourable features. In particular:


The promotion of geotourism in the *Monte del Diavolo* area can be realized following different strategies dedicated to the two main types of involved tourists.

Maps and field guide books illustrating the area stretching from *Oria* relic belt to the coastline crossing the *Monte del Diavolo* area could attract "specialized" tourists which visit geosites for the purpose of personal educational or intellectual improvement and enjoyment. The availability of GPS tracks and waypoints as well as remote resources to deepen main topics would facilitate the self-guided visit of the area.

Guided group field trips along bike routes and footpaths should be the main strategy to promote geotourism in the *Monte del Diavolo*, involving casual tourists which visit geosites and geomorphosites mainly for recreation and pleasure. A geotourism guide can lead a group safely through existing trails, introducing, with a popular language, the main geological, geomorphological, cultural and environmental aspects of the area. In this way the recreation activity is enriched without further effort by a cultural experience. A visitors' centre at *S. Pietro in Bevagna*, the most frequented locality occurring along the coast, is needed to promote guided field trips and as a meeting point for interested people. Popular guides can be realized both to advertise field trips and to keep the memory of the lived experience.

#### **7. Conclusions**

A small isolated relief, the *Monte del Diavolo*, marks the morphological district of *Murge Tarantine*, an area of great geological interest since it shows the morphological effects of the North Salento Fault Zone, a dextral strike-slip fault of regional importance.

The geomorphological survey of *Monte del Diavolo* revealed that its peculiar morphology can be referred to the presence of well cemented karst breccia deposits produced by cave ceiling and wall collapse. The major resistance to the karst solution of *breccia* deposits compared to surrounding limestones would be responsible for the shaping of the unusual isolated relief.

*Monte del Diavolo* is placed in an area marked by a valuable archaeological, cultural and natural heritage that has been unexploited so far notwithstanding the remarkable tourism flow along the nearby coastline. Thanks to its peculiar morphology and name, the *Monte del Diavolo* isolated relief could represent the focal point of bike routes and footpaths crossing the area between the *Oria* relic dune belt and the coastline. Maps and field guide books illustrating the main geological and geomorphological features of the area could be produced for "specialized" tourists, whereas "casual" tourist can take advantage of guided field trips, thus joining recreation activity with geotourism.

**Funding:** This research received no external funding.

**Conflicts of Interest:** The author declares no conflict of interest.

#### **References**


© 2019 by the author. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

### *Article* **Geoheritage as a Tool for Environmental Management: A Case Study in Northern Malta (Central Mediterranean Sea)**

#### **Lidia Selmi 1, Paola Coratza 1,\*, Ritienne Gauci <sup>2</sup> and Mauro Soldati <sup>1</sup>**


Received: 1 October 2019; Accepted: 22 October 2019; Published: 26 October 2019

**Abstract:** The recognition, selection and quantitative assessment of sites of geological and geomorphological interest are fundamental steps in any environmental management focused on geoconservation and geotourism promotion. The island of Malta, in the central Mediterranean Sea, despite having a steadily increasing growth in population and tourism, still conserves geological and geomorphological features of great relevance and interest, both for their contribution to the understanding of the geological processes acting through time on landscape and for their aesthetic importance. The present work proposes an inventory for northern Malta, through three main stages, with the outcome of a final list of geosites that have the potential to be recognized as both natural heritage and tourist resources with potential economic benefits. In particular, the assessment methodology applied combines scientific value and additional and use-values, showing the links existing between geoheritage and other aspects of nature and culture of the sites. The results provide useful knowledge for the definition of strategies aimed at the development of a sustainable and responsible tourism.

**Keywords:** geoheritage; geosites; quantitative assessment; Malta

#### **1. Introduction**

Recent global trends have shown heightened appreciation of the variety of abiotic natural resources, known as geodiversity. This variety of non-living natural resources is defined by Gray [1] as the natural range (diversity) of geological, geomorphological and soil features. It describes the diversity of physical processes operating on Earth and the resultant rocks, minerals, fossils, sediments, soils, landforms, landscapes and habitats found on the world's surface today [1–3]. Geodiversity, a resource still little known and which can create potential economic growth that has been largely untapped, allows for the definition of geosites, that together form the geological heritage. In this regard, geoheritage is considered as a natural resource and can be used in local and regional development, especially for promoting a territory for geotouristic purposes [4,5].

The Maltese archipelago, which lies at the center of the Mediterranean Sea, is a European country with a rich cultural heritage endowed with a great variety of natural features of international significance. Indeed, the small geographic scale of the islands is inversely proportional to the richness and frequency of places and artefacts of major importance, and it encompasses, as well, a large number of sites of geoscientific interest, showing a considerable geodiversity. This applies in particular to northern Malta, a sector of the island moderately populated, but which still conserves landscapes of great relevance and interest from a scenic and scientific point of view. These sites are mainly located along coastal areas, and have to co-exist with the island's main economic activity of tourism. This industry has in fact been capitalizing on some of the most impressive coastal sceneries of the Maltese archipelago for over half a century. However, there is still remarkable potential on how the rich natural and cultural heritage of the archipelago is valued and promoted especially with regard to its geological and geomorphological heritage.

It is a widely shared opinion that any action aiming to promote or protect geoheritage implies a good knowledge of the resource in terms of its location and characteristics. For this reason, an inventory, based on the analysis and assessment of the most valuable elements that define the geoheritage of a territory, represents the first necessary step towards its effective management. A number of European countries have already carried out a similar national inventory, such as Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Lithuania, Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, Slovakia, Spain, Switzerland and United Kingdom [6]. More work is, however, required on a global scale.

Recently in Malta, considerable geological and geomorphological research, especially in the north of the archipelago, has been undertaken by scientists in order to showcase the international geological and geomorphological significance of Maltese landscapes [7–13]. Nevertheless, the Maltese Islands still lack an official inventory of sites of geological interest and the government has not yet assigned geological heritage as a specific (or separate) legal provision related to the conservation and management of natural sites. Though the Maltese natural landscapes are governed by a comprehensive legal framework, such instrument mainly (but not only) sustains the importance of biodiversity and ecological conservation at local and international levels. Recently, efforts to recognize elements of geological heritage of the Maltese Islands were primarily channeled to urban landscapes, through the historical and cultural use of the Maltese Lower Globigerina Limestone over the centuries for heritage buildings. These efforts resulted in this limestone unit receiving the status of Global Heritage Stone Resource (GHSR) by the International Union of Geological Sciences in 2019.

In this context, a study for the inventory and assessment of sites of geological interest, highlighting their location and characteristics (e.g., integrity, state of activity, attractiveness and accessibility) in the northern part of the island of Malta has been conducted and the results are here presented. This work aims at providing a better understanding of the geological and geomorphological characteristics of the study area and facilitating the recognition of the opportunities and threats, in order to strengthen the argument for the setting-up an effective environmental management plan, which would directly include both geoconservation and geotourism actions.

#### **2. Maltese Context**

Despite the small geographic size of the archipelago, the protection of the natural heritage of the Maltese Islands is governed by a fair number of main legislative acts, related legal chapters and subsidiary legislation (Table 1). These legal instruments are regularly updated in order to transpose European and international laws, mainly from the United Nations (including the Mediterranean Action Plan), the Council of Europe and the European Union [14]. A number of subsidiary legislations are also in force (Table 1), a few of which have replaced earlier legal notices, in order to also transpose international legal obligations into national law.

The Environment Protection Act is the main legal instrument that safeguards the protection of the 'landscape and its features' under the relatively broad umbrella term of 'environment'. A number of natural landscape features are classified as areas of high landscape value (AHLV) under the Development and Planning Act, mainly coastal cliffs, valley systems, karstic plateaus, escarpments, woodland and agricultural settings. Most of these natural features intrinsically incorporate geological and geomorphological properties; however, the value of these features is primarily recognized for its support function to biodiversity and ecological systems, rather than specifically (or exclusively) for their geological properties in their own right. Under the Cultural Heritage Act, the definition of cultural heritage also includes 'geological sites and deposits' and 'landscapes'; however, the act has no specific provisions related to their geoheritage value. The Fertile Soil (Preservation) Act primarily addresses the maintenance of terraced landscapes, so typical in Malta's rural setting, by offering direct protection to soil as a resource. A number of islets around the Maltese Islands, such as Filfla and St. Paul's Islands have been legally established as nature reserves and limiting human access only for scientific purposes. In addition to that, 13.1% of terrestrial areas of the Maltese Islands and 35% of their territorial waters form part of the EU Natura 2000 Network as protected areas under various designations (Table 2, [15]).


**Table 1.** Maltese legal instruments related to the natural landscape management and protection.

**Table 2.** The number of protected sites according to designation type (Source: Compiled from the Environment and Resource Authority (ERA) [15]).


The legal framework of natural heritage protection of the Maltese Islands is thus a mosaic of different provisions, with a number of sites protected by more than one designation (Table 2). Within this legal context, the importance of geoheritage as a conservation rationale remains, however, diluted, when compared with that for ecological and biodiversity protection. Despite this, the interest of the scientific community in geoheritage and geotourism has been growing over a number of years. With respect to the Maltese archipelago, the importance of developing studies to investigate the linkage between environment and cultural heritage and the relationship between geoheritage and tourism was initially explored in April 2007 during the International Workshop on the 'Integration of the geomorphological environment and cultural heritage for tourism promotion and hazard prevention' held in Malta [16,17]. The papers presented dealt with different aspects of the integration of the physical environment and cultural heritage through case studies from different parts of the world including Malta (e.g., [18]). More recently, Gauci et al. [11] and Gauci and Inkpen [19] have highlighted the geoheritage value of shore platforms in Malta by examining the close relationship between the physical landscape of the foreshore and human cultural development. The significance of Maltese coastal landforms for societal wellbeing was also investigated by Satariano and Gauci [20] who examined the intense reactions experienced by both the Maltese and international community following the sudden loss of an iconic sea arch at Dwejra (Gozo) in March 2017. This latter work forms part of a collection of contributions recently edited by Gauci and Schembri [13] and which illustrate the rich diversity of the Maltese physical landscapes under the World Geomorphological Landscapes series (Springer). Specific studies on geoheritage and geosites inventory and assessment have been carried out on the north-west coast of Malta, especially in the area of Il-Majjistral Nature and History Park and environs [7,12]. With respect to the island of Gozo, this theme was explored by Coratza et al. [8] who examined spectacular sinkholes having highly scientific, ecological, aesthetic, cultural and use-values as geomorphosites. Specific research on Dwejra area, on the western coast of Gozo [9,21], has highlighted how the integration of environmental and cultural heritage aspects makes this area a site of remarkable value to be promoted for a more holistic and varied tourism.

#### **3. Study Area**

The study area is located in the north of Malta, the largest island of the Maltese archipelago (Figure 1). It is sparsely inhabited and characterized by a high tourism vocation. According to the National Tourism Policy 2015–2020, northern Malta is defined as a 'tourism zone' due to its tourism infrastructures, hosting a further 42% of tourist accommodation [22].

**Figure 1.** Location and geological setting of the study area.

The island attracts many tourists, also thanks to its mild Mediterranean climate characterized by an average rainfall of 530 mm per year and mean temperatures ranging from 12 to 27 ◦C.

The rocks exposed in the island comprise a marine sedimentary succession, mostly composed of limestones and marls and deposited in a period between Upper Oligocene and Miocene [23,24]. In the study area, all five geological formations constituting the Maltese archipelago outcrop (Figure 1). From the oldest to the youngest the formations are Lower Coralline Limestone Fm., Globigerina Limestone Fm., Blue Clay Fm., Greensand Fm. and Upper Coralline Limestone Fm. (Figure 2).

**Figure 2.** View of Il-Qammieè, showing the entire geological/stratigraphic sequence. From the bottom: Lower Coralline Limestone Fm. (LCL), Globigerina Limestone Fm. (GL), Blue Clay Fm. (BC), Greensand and Upper Coralline Limestone Fm. (UCL).

The Lower Coralline Limestone Fm., composed of pale grey, hard, shallow marine biomicrites and biospartites [23,25], outcrops in a restricted coastal stretch between Rdum il-Qammieè and Ic-˙ Cumnija, ˙ in the eastern part of the study area. The sequence continues with the soft and yellowish Globigerina Limestone Fm., named on account of the high percentage of planktonic foraminifera present in the unit (Figure 3a). The usual color of the formation is pale-yellow, although a pale-grey subdivision bounded both above and below by phosphorite conglomerate horizons, occurs in the middle of the sequence [25,26]. It outcrops on the Ras il-Qammieè coast and in Selmun Bay, in proximity of St. Paul's Islands.

**Figure 3.** Landscape features of the study area: (**a**) Terrace in Lower Globigerina Limestone at Il-Qammieè with typical honey pots dissolution structures; (**b**) badland topography in Blue Clay slopes overlain by Upper Coralline Limestone cliffs at Il-Qammieè.

It is followed by the Blue Clay Fm., formed in a deep-sea depositional setting and is made up of fine-grained sediments with a large component of organic material derived from planktonic organisms. It consists of sequences of alternating pale-grey and dark-grey banded marls (Figure 3b), with lighter bands containing a higher proportion of carbonate [27]. The uppermost part of the Blue Clay Fm. Shows an increase in brown phosphatic sand grains and green grains of glauconite, together with abundant fossil fragments, often separated by an erosional surface. This level is known as Greensand Fm. and underlines the passage to the overlying Upper Coralline Limestone Fm. The fossiliferous content is mostly represented by mollusks, gastropods, brachiopods, echinoids, bryozoans, algae, shark teeth, and remains of marine mammals [23,24,28]. It shows its maximum thickness of 11 m in Gozo, but the formation is rarely thicker than one meter in the area under study at Il-Qammieè point. The upper part of the sequence is made up of the Upper Coralline Limestone Fm., a hard, pale grey limestone unit, very similar to the Lower Coralline Limestone especially in color and coralline algal content, of shallow water environment. It usually makes up plateaus and steep cliffs affected by weathering and mass movements [26]. It is often affected by a dense network of tectonic discontinuities which provide the rock masses with a brittle behavior (Figure 3b) [29,30]. This formation largely covers the study area, with a thickness even higher than 100 m.

The geological formations lie almost horizontally across the islands, although they are displaced by tectonic structures [25,31,32]. From a tectonic viewpoint, the archipelago is crossed by two fault systems, the NW-SE trending Pantelleria Rift and the WSW-ENE graben system [23]. The latter is the most ancient and is responsible for a horst and graben structure that characterizes the northern sector of the island of Malta [33,34]. Indeed, the study area is part of the North Malta Graben, one of the three main structural regions of the Maltese Islands. The North Malta Graben is characterized by typical ridge-trough morphology and bounded by the Great Fault to the south [32].

The geomorphological landscape is largely controlled by the different physical and mechanical properties of the lithostratigraphic units and by tectonic features.

The coastal landscape is mainly shaped by marine processes, that produce inlets and bays with small pocket beaches [35–37]. Due to the presence of resistant conglomerate beds and hardgrounds within the stratigraphy of Globigerina Limestone, a number of shore platforms have developed at sea level as a result of differential erosion [19]. On the contrary, plunging cliffs are the dominating features in Upper Coralline Limestone, at times shaped in sea caves. Mass movements are widespread all along the northwestern part of the study area, due to the fragile behavior of limestones, which cap Blue Clay Fm. characterized by visco-plastic properties. Rock falls and topples are abundant along the coastline and mainly affect the Upper Coralline Limestone plateaus which are characterized by persistent fissures and cracks of tectonic origin [29,37–41]. Evidence of rock spreading and block sliding phenomena characterize the stretch of coast at Rdum il-Qammieèand Rdum il-Qawwi, in the northwestern part of the Marfa Ridge Peninsula, and at Rdum il-Majjiesa, located inside the Il-Majjistral Park boundaries. The lateral extension of rock masses tends to evolve into block sliding whose onset is extensively witnessed by scattered blocks of variable size lying on the Blue Clay slopes which gently slide toward the sea and protect the shoreline from the marine erosion (Figure 4a) [29,42–44].

Karstic features are well developed on the surface topography of plateaus, characterized by highly irregular and rugged surface morphology, resulting from solution processes. Karst pavements, solution holes and solution pans are also particularly relevant. Sinkholes have been found in the area, usually caused by the collapse of cave roofs (Figure 4b). They are characterized by a flat bottom and may reach a few hundreds of meters in diameter and stratigraphic throw [45,46].

The area under study is relatively less urbanized compared with the rest of the island, but has been significantly influenced over time by human activity for agricultural and tourism purposes [47]. Coastal and inland slopes have been remodeled into terraced fields retained by dry stone walls and utilized as terraced agricultural land [48,49]. The terraced fields and agricultural land are usually installed on V-shaped dry valleys, relict of former pluvial conditions and extensive groundwater sapping. The presence of archaeological features and British military architecture can also be encountered.

**Figure 4.** Landscape views of the study area: (**a**) Aerial photo of Rdum il-Qammieè, showing the impressive rock fall and block slides, typical of the area; (**b**) remarkable example of karstic feature in Upper Coralline Limestone Fm. at Aèrax point.

#### **4. Materials and Methods**

During the last 30 years, the increasing interest in geoheritage has led to the development of methodologies for its inventory and assessment [50,51] and references therein. In fact, the scientific literature is rich in examples of geosite inventories both at national (e.g., [52–56], regional (e.g., [51,57–59]) and local scale (e.g., [60–62]). Numerous methods are described in literature for the qualitative and quantitative assessment of geoheritage and geosites in various contexts (cf. [63,64]): Environmental Impact Assessment and territorial planning (e.g., [65–68]); inventory of natural heritage sites (e.g., [53,58,69–71]); tourist promotion (e.g., [72–76]); management of nature parks and geoheritage (e.g., [77–81]). A complete review of methods for the assessment of geosites has been recently published by Brilha [82]. In general, it should be emphasized that all methods inevitably imply a degree of subjectivity since their intrinsic value cannot be measured. In order to reduce subjectivity and properly evaluate the various components of a geosite, it is necessary to define clear and transparent criteria, which can vary according to the aim, working scale and subject of the assessment. Even though there is no generally accepted method for the numerical assessment of geosites, recurrent criteria are used in literature, such as rarity, representativeness and integrity, ecological value, paleogeographic importance, educational value etc. [64].

Based on published literature, as well as on knowledge achieved in previous research on geoheritage in various morphoclimatic contexts, the methodological approach adopted for the identification of geosites in northern Malta comprises the following operational phases (Figure 5): (i) Recognition and selection of sites of geological and geomorphological interest (i.e., potential geosites), based on their representativeness in terms of geohistory and geo(morpho)diversity [51,79]; (ii) analysis and characterization of potential geosites; (iii) quantitative assessment of potential geosites and final selection of geosites.

**Figure 5.** The three stages of the methodological approach.

#### *4.1. Recognition and Selection of Sites of Geological and Geomorphological Interest*

In order to recognize sites of geological and geomorphological interest, the first phase consists of a literature review of papers and maps of the area under study and field surveys. A number of papers dealing with the geological and geomorphological features of the Maltese archipelago compiled in the last decades are available, some of which specifically devoted to the geoheritage of the northwestern sector of the island.

Literature review and field survey are fundamental for the recognition of sites of geological and geomorphological interest to be qualitatively assessed, considering the different morphoclimatic conditions, geomorphological processes and lithological and structural constraints that controlled their development. This enables us to account for a variety of features that can finally be considered as geosites. Two main criteria have been taken into account in the assessment procedure (cf. [51]):


#### *4.2. Analysis and Characterisation of Potential Geosites*

The second phase foresees the analysis and characterization of potential geosites to be selected among the sites of geological and geomorphological interest previously identified. The analysis provides for the identification of a series of parameters characterizing each potential geosites. These parameters are collected in a descriptive card including elements of textual description and pictorial data. In particular, each descriptive card collects the following headings:


#### *4.3. Quantitative Assessment of Potential Geosites and Selection of Geosites*

The employment of a quantitative assessment is considered necessary in order to decrease the subjectivity associated with any evaluation. The methodology adopted by Coratza et al. [8], already applied with positive results on the northwestern coast of the island of Malta, in a similar geological and geomorphological context [12], has been considered as the most suitable for the assessment of potential geosites. This methodology is inspired by methods previously proposed by Serrano and Gonzàlez Trueba [69], Bruschi and Cendrero [68], Pererira et al. [77] and Reynard et al. [70]. The geosite value assessment is based on 16 criteria divided into three main groups of value, i.e., scientific value (SV), additional value (AV) and use-value (UV), each one producing a final score for its category (Table 3). The scientific value aims to reveal the value of the site for the geosciences and it is assessed according to four criteria (paleogeomorphological model, rareness, representativeness and integrity) scored on a scale from 0 to 1. The additional value is linked to the importance that a geosite assumes owing to non-geological aspects which increase its overall value and is made up of three independent sub-values: ecological, aesthetic and cultural. The use-value refers to the possible utilisation of geosites by society. The scores given for each criterion are reported in Table 3.


**Table 3.** Values and criteria of geosite assessment methodology and related scores.

The value of a geosite results from the total of the scores obtained from all criteria, with 10 being the highest score possible. Once completed, the assessment will provide a set of total scores for each of the three observed values (scientific, additional and use-value). On the basis of both the range and the total of these scores, a series of score-defined thresholds were established in order to allow also the inclusion of sites, which though they may have limited scientific value, they nonetheless may hold potential for geotourism and educational activities. The score thresholds were established on both the basis of the highest scores and the scope of the study. The sites that reach such thresholds can be finally considered as geosites.

#### **5. Results**

#### *5.1. Recognition and Selection of Sites of Geological and Geomorphological Interest*

As a first stage, a literature review has been carried out referred to more than 50 scientific references comprising 13 theses, ca. 40 national and international papers, 5 geological and geomorphological maps and several reports of Maltese environmental agencies (Planning Authority, Environmental and Resources Authority, Malta Environment and Planning Authority). In particular, the scientific papers analyzed (Figure 6) deal with various geological aspects including geomorphology (33%), structural geology (19%), stratigraphy (10%), paleontology (7%), geoheritage (6%) and miscellaneous geological topics (25%).

This detailed literature review combined with several field surveys led to the identification of sites in the study area with geological and geomorphological interest. The field surveys were essential to integrate the list of sites previously identified with new sites not mentioned in literature. In addition, field surveys were also fundamental to collect site-specific updated information—i.e., state of conservation, state of activity, accessibility, visibility and presence of services—relevant to the completion of the descriptive cards and the quantitative assessment of potential geosites.

Through literature review and field surveys, sites with geological and geomorphological interest were recognized and 31 were selected as potential geosites considering the two criteria mentioned in paragraph 4.1, i.e., geohistory and geo(morpho)diversity. The sites selected are representative evidence of the main geological and geomorphological processes acting through time in the study area (Figure 7).

#### *5.2. Analysis and Characterization of Potential Geosites*

The 31 potential geosites selected were analyzed and for each site a descriptive card has been compiled including the information reported in paragraph 4.2 and Figure 8. The data collected in this phase were stored in a GIS database.

**Figure 7.** Location of the 31 sites selected within the study area. The numbers correspond to the ID of the sites.


**Figure 8.** Example of a descriptive card of a potential geosite.

Regarding the type of sites (Figure 9a), 19 sites were classified as areal (61%), 10 sites as punctiform (31%) and 2 sites as linear (7%). It can be stated that the selected sites refer to the three main lithological formations of the area under study (Upper Coralline Limestone Fm., Blue Clay Fm. and Globigerina Limestone Fm.) and most of the sites consist of two or more different lithologies (Figure 9b). Regarding the main scientific interest, 26 of the selected sites have mainly geomorphological interest (84%), 3 sites display evidence of anthropogenic activity (10%) and the last 2 sites have tectonic origin (6%). As reported in Figure 9c, almost half of the geomorphological sites (45%, 14 sites) feature gravitational movements, followed by 7 sites (23%) shaped by sea action and 3 sites (16%) by karstic processes. Most of them are located along the coast (Figure 9d), where impressive lateral spreading phenomena dominate the landscape and where wave action and litho-structural processes shape cliffs and bays. For their representativeness, karst morphologies have also been selected, such as the surface topography on limestone plateaus that present small irregular rock pools colonized by typical Mediterranean vegetation and a large number of endemic communities [94]. Other selected sites in the area are two sinkholes at the eastern and western ends of the Marfa Ridge peninsula.

**Figure 9.** Distribution of potential geosites according to (**a**) type; (**b**) lithology; (**c**) main interest; (**d**) location; (**e**) state of activity.

Besides the sites with entirely natural origin, sites of geological and geomorphological interest strictly linked with the anthropogenic activity were selected. In fact, the geology has greatly influenced the location of settlement and activity of human civilization. The term 'anthropogenic site' was then used to differentiate these types of sites from the pristine ones. The best example is the large area of industrial salinas (ID26, ID27), not in use anymore, that covers approximately 1 km along the shore platforms of Blata l-Bajda in Selmun [95]. The rocky shore platforms in soft Globigerina Limestone developed the ideal coastal landscape for the formation of natural pools filled with seawater. This natural feature was extended and built from humans in order to collect seawater for the production of salt [11,19]. This site shows how geological features influence traditional practices and how sites with geological and geomorphological interest can be considered as part of the cultural heritage. Another example of anthropogenic site is the presence of cart ruts (ID12), on Wied Musa battery. This site is evidence of ancient agricultural civilizations that hewn the rock below the field, using a slide-car or wheeled cart.

Two sites have been chosen mainly for the geological/geotectonic interest such as St. Paul's Islands that are crossed by one of the major SW-NE faults in the island and which affected the horizontal transition between Upper Coralline Limestone and Upper Globigerina Limestone. The 52% of the sites (16 sites) are active landforms which provide clear evidence of geological and geomorphological processes in action. The remaining 48% (15 sites) consist of inherited landforms, that testify to inactive processes which are evidence of past geological and geomorphological processes (Figure 9e).

#### *5.3. Quantitative Assessment and Selection of Geosites*

The 31 potential geosites have been assessed through the methodology described in paragraph 4.3 in order to establish the final selection of geosites.

Once the potential geosites have been evaluated, the total scores for each value (scientific, additional and use-value) were plotted on a graph plane according to the cartesian coordinate system. The total scores of the scientific value plus additional and use values (combined) were plotted on the cartesian plane as x-axis and y-axis respectively (Figure 10). A score value of ≥4.5 was established for the total value, along which to define the potential geosites as (final) geosites, provided that the scientific value was ≥2.0.

The results are presented in Table 4 where the values of each geosite are shown. 10 sites have been selected as geosites for the high score in scientific interest and total additional and use-value. Not only sites with high scientific value were selected, but also sites with potential as geotourist destination and ideal for educational activities, according to the aim of the present research. As shown in Figure 10, two salinas at Blata l-Bajda (ID26 and ID27), despite the high potential as tourist attractions, were not selected as geosite due to the lack of relevant scientific importance. Instead, areas affected by rock spreading (ID1 and ID4) and rock topple (ID2), even though the low relevance as scientific site, are selected as geosite due to their important score in additional and use-value. All the identified geosites are examples that well represent geohistory and geo(morpho)diversity of the study area and are capable of being exploited as geotourist resources. The sinkhole at Il-Ponta tal-Aèrax (ID 13) is considered the only occurrence of this type in the island of Malta and the fault at Il-Qammieè (ID31) is

the only spot where all the Maltese geological formations outcrop in the study area. Considering the use-value, the rock topple at Il-Bajja tac-˙ Cirkewwa (ID2) is the only site presenting a complete range of ˙ services and facilities, thus having the possibility to host geotourism activities. Almost all the sites are accessible without obstacles, except ID24 that is located on St. Paul's Islands, a protected nature reserve with limited access. All the sites have educational potential at different levels. All the geosites show a high total aesthetic value, making them attractive also to a public of non-specialists.


**Table 4.** Final quantitative assessment of potential geosites (sites finally selected as geosites are highlighted in yellow).


**Table 4.** *Cont.*

#### Description of the Geosites

The geosites finally selected are reported in descending order, considering the total score value achieved.

#### ID31: Il-Qammieè Fault

Il-Qammieè, on the south side of the Marfa Ridge, is one of the most striking geological features which exposes the entire Oligo-Miocene Maltese lithological sequence, including the Greensand Fm. The place is already designated under the Flora, Fauna and Natural Habitats Protection Regulations (SL 549.44) in view of its diverse and endemic ecology. Upper beds of the Lower Coralline Limestone are well exposed along the base of an elevated platform. The top of this formation is marked by the abundance of the echinoid *Scutella subrotunda* and constitutes the important marker Scutella Bed. The succession continues with the exposure of Globigerina Limestone Fm., all the three members, and passes transitionally up into the banded Blue Clay deposit. Overlying the Blue Clay Fm. there is approximately 1 m of the Greensand Fm., occurring as a friable, green and brown colored glauconitic micrite. On the top of this stratigraphic section, the Upper Coralline Limestone Fm. outcrops, typically cream colored by fossiliferous algal limestones (Mtarfa Member) containing abundant spherical rhodoliths [23,96]. The site is one of the most accessible and clear spots showing the intact transition of the five formations, suitable for educational activities (Figure 2).

#### ID13: Id-Dragonara Sinkhole

The site is a subsidence structure found at Il-Ponta tal-Aèrax. This structure is created as a result of the corrosive action of rainwater with limestone which enlarges a cave to an extent where the cave's roof becomes unstable and collapses. This unique site is connected with the sea and it is a place of interest for diving and kayaking. It lies 10 m above sea level; for this reason, it is regarded as a panoramic lookout point from where it is possible to view all Marfa peninsula, Gozo and Comino. The site has already considered as a site with aesthetical value frequented by recreational activities, but it has also scientific relevance being a unique sinkhole in Malta connected with the sea (Figure 4b). It is known by the locals as Id-Dragonara.

#### ID3: Cirkewwa Sinkhole ˙

A semi-circular sinkhole is found in Cirkewwa, northwest of Malta, known from the locals as ˙ Latnija, or as Gèajn Tuta, the latter being the name of the local area in which it is situated. It is probably Quaternary in age [46,97] and represents the collapse of a limestone roof of a small cave. It shows a semi-circular shape and has a diameter of 35 m, on the ground level and it is surrounded by a rocky pavement with soil infills on its karstic surface. Partly obscured by typical Mediterranean scrubland, the site is highly affected by human activities such as rock climbing, camping and recreation such as barbeque. The geodiversity content of the site can be linked with other subjects as ecology and biology, due to the presence of Mediterranean vegetation. The site is a unique example of inland sinkhole in the area under study and the second in all Malta (consequent only by Il-Maqluba in the south of Malta). It is a perfect spot to appreciate the karst processes that acted and act nowadays on the archipelago (Figure 11a).

**Figure 11.** Views of the selected geosites: (**a**) Latinija sinkhole (ID3); (**b**) Il-Bajja tac-˙ Cirkewwa ˙ where mass movements affect Upper Coralline Limestone overlaying Blue Clays (ID2); (**c**,**d**) badland topography in Blue Clay slopes (ID28 and ID8); (**e**) Lower Globigerina terrace (ID7); (**f**) lateral spreading affecting Upper Coralline Limestone overlying Blue Clays (ID1).

#### ID2: Il-Bajja Tac-˙ Cirkewwa Rock Topple ˙

A spectacular site with lateral spreading and rock topple in Upper Coralline Limestone Fm., this embayment represents a highly-sought-after bay on the island with a pocket sandy beach. The site is called Il-Bajja tac-˙ Cirkewwa, better known as Paradise Bay due to the clear sea waters that fringe the ˙ white sandy beach. The high score is assigned not only from a scientific point of view for its landslide features, but also for the presence of recreational facilities. Services as bars, hotels, car parks and a bus station are found within the site. The bay is also popular for shore diving. The whole area is easily accessible via public services and directly connected with the national road that could favor educational activities (Figure 11b).

#### ID28 and ID8: Badland Topography on Blue Clay Slopes

Both sites have a high visual impact and make up exemplary cases that help to understand the geomorphological evolution of coastal areas. ID28 (Figure 11c) is located at Blata l–Bajda, between the salinas in Globigerina Limestone and the fragmented plateau of Upper Coralline Limestone. The site is easily accessible and it could be the destination of a number of activities related to other subjects, such as history, ecology and biology due to the presence of salinas, military fortifications and green areas. Despite the fragility of the environment, this site is widely used by locals for recreational activities such as hiking, cycling, motorcycling and hunting. These recreational activities are a potential threat to the exposed Blue Clay slopes. The second site, ID8 (Figure 11d), has high scenic impact and remarkable educational value. The Blue Clay slopes outcrop, gently corrugated, between the Upper Coralline Limestone plateau and a unique terrace (ID7) in Globigerina Limestone. In this site it is possible to understand how detached blocks of Upper Coralline Limestone move on the underling Blue Clays slopes and how badland topography develops.

#### ID7: Rdum Il-Qammieè Terrace

A 1 km terrace in Lower Globigerina Limestone Fm. extends along the coast of Rdum il-Qammieè, featuring with typical examples of karst terrain. Chemical weathering is the main process shaping the surface of the platform and forming small solution pools, also known as honeycomb structures. High scientific value and high aesthetic value are assigned to this unique terrace in northern Malta, which is spectacularly flat and yellow-colored. In addition, it conserves a substantial number of fossils. The intensive network of fossilized burrowing channels over the surface of the Lower Globigerina Limestone scallop shells especially within the Lower Conglomerate bed, and the fossils of Echinoids species exposed at the surface. It can be considered an unspoiled outbound site, without services nearby. The Upper Coralline Limestone forms a plateau at the top of the slope profile and is the source of numerous boulders that are deposited on the Blue Clay slopes and the terrace. These boulders, different in size, are used by climbers for boulder activity (Figure 11e).

#### ID1 and ID4: Areas Affected by Lateral Spreading

Located on the west coast, respectively in Ta' Qassisu (Figure 11f) and Rdum il-Qawwi (Figure 12a), these two sites are representative of gravity-induced processes active on the coast. In particular, it is possible to appreciate deep fissures on the carbonatic plateau, block sliding and lateral spreading, constantly expanding towards the sea. The geodiversity content of the area can be combined with two other subjects: biology and history. Indeed, as additional value, the plateau hosts a variety of endemic flowers and plants and offers a spectacular view of Gozo. Rich also from the cultural-historical point of view, both sites host remains of old villages and pillboxes of the Second World War. ID4 presents a higher number of blocks located on the coast and a small rock window shaped by sea action.

**Figure 12.** Views of the selected geosites: (**a**) Lateral spreading affecting Upper Coralline Limestone overlying Blue Clays (ID4); (**b**) St. Paul's Islands fault (ID24).

#### ID24: St. Paul's Islands Fault

The islets of St. Paul, protected as Nature Reserve, lie 800 m from Selmunett Bay. A direct fault across the island has brought the Upper Coralline Limestone in juxtaposition with Upper Globigerina Limestone [95]. The Upper Coralline Limestone is predominant on the surface and represents the entire surface morphology of the islets; the Upper Globigerina Limestone outcrops as a small cliff with a narrow shore platform at the base. The coast of islets also features a number of marine caves. The islets are a Level 2 Site of Scientific Importance (SSI) for its geomorphology (GN 827 of 2002). Access to the islets is only permissible between sunrise and sunset and then only against an entry permit obtainable from the Environment and Resource Authority (ERA) (Figure 12b).

#### **6. Conclusions**

This work aims to increase the knowledge of the rich geological heritage of northern Malta, providing a better understanding of the geological and geomorphological characteristics of the study area and facilitating the recognition of the opportunities, in order to strengthen the argument for the setting-up an effective environmental management plan, taking into full account the geological component as well. The present research shows that, considering the small geographic scale of the island, there is a high level of geodiversity of features primarily controlled by the interaction between geomorphological processes, structure and stratified geology. An assessment of geosites has been carried out based on a set of criteria that links geological and geomorphological importance with additional values of the sites, as aesthetic, cultural, ecological and economic. The accurate description and characterization of potential geosites and their inventory aim to help the government administration become more aware of the sites of geological interest in the area, giving useful information for their effective management which includes both geoconservation and geotourism actions. As found in the result (Section 5.1), we classified the sites in active or inherited, not only to note their state of activity, but to take into consideration their vulnerability and fragility. Active geosites, in fact, are fragile and may necessitate management and protection measures. Similar to most geosites, they are exposed to natural and man-made processes that threaten their integrity and may compromise their value. Therefore, their conservation is a complex issue since it should address the problem of both possible destruction by natural active processes and man-induced damage. In addition, very often dynamic sites are highly sensitive features, susceptible to modifications due to processes' changes in time, frequency and intensity. Many coastal environments are very sensitive areas, particularly vulnerable to disturbance and prone to change, where climate change impacts are very acute. Changes are visible at very short time scales and may generate active processes, very evident to observe. The same consideration can be done to the size of the sites. The limited study area comprises small isolated

features that are usually more vulnerable due to their dimension and can stand a lower tourist pressure compared to extensive areal geosites [58]. Geoheritage inventory and assessment are therefore the first steps in the process of effective conservation and promotion. Some degree of legal protection already exists in a few sites. A wide part of the study area falls under Natura 2000 management as Special Areas of Conservation (SAC) or Special Protected Areas (SPA). In addition, some sites, such as G ˙zejjer ta' San Pawl, are scheduled as Nature Reserves and so protected under the Nature Reserve legislation (Table 1) or established as nature parks, such as the Majjistral Nature and History Park. The integration of the geoheritage character of the area would mean both strengthening the landscape value for its geological and geomorphological component and unifying the whole study area under geoheritage conservation rather than leaving it as an area with single components of conservation.

Geoheritage, combined with the rich cultural heritage, could be considered as the heart of tourism and educational activities, with Malta's tourism direct contribution to GDP being among the highest in the EU. Data from the World Travel and Tourism Council (WTTC) show that the travel and tourism industry's total contribution to Malta's GDP stood at 27.1% in 2017. This was the highest share recorded within the Mediterranean region by a notable margin and was also well above the Mediterranean, European Union and World averages, which ranged between 10% and 12%. The total contribution of travel and tourism industries to employment including indirect and induced impacts was estimated to reach 55,000 jobs in 2017 (28.3% of total employment) [98,99]. Concerning the kind of tourism, leisure tourism remains the main purpose of visit for the vast majority of tourist arrivals to the Maltese Islands, with a share of 85.3% of total inbound tourists in 2017. The number of visitors for business purposes stood at 7.9% (2017), whilst "other" tourist segments, such as for educational, religious and health-related purposes, stood at 6.8%. Most importantly, there has also been some evidence of diversification within the Maltese holiday product itself, which departs from the stereotypical image of the islands as a 'sun and sea' destination. The Market Profile Survey (for 2017) undertaken by the Malta Tourism Authority's [100] has in fact shown that only 15.7% of inbound tourists chose Malta based on traditional 'sun and sea' destinations. The largest share of tourists (42.9%) chose Malta for its culture and heritage. Moreover, the tourism industry in Malta has gradually also shifted from package to non-package holidaymakers. This reflects the emergence of a more independent type of tourist who wishes to experience the Maltese Islands in a more autonomous and dynamic way.

Given the increasing number of tourists (currently standing at 2.6 million tourists in 2018), geotourism, as a form of sustainable tourism, is the best solution that sustains and enhances the identity of the territory, especially rural areas, taking in consideration its geology, environment, culture, aesthetics, heritage and the well-being of its residents [101]. Geotourism will ensure benefits for traveler that will discover the geoheritage, cultural heritage and traditions of the archipelago in an innovative and green way, respecting the environment and ensuring a sustainable economic growth. At the same time, geotourism may offers to locals a high-quality standard of life, helping to build a local identity and promote the unique and authentic heritage in their territory, being involved and architects of geotourism activities. In addition, the need to establish geoheritage recognition of these sites is also paramount to provide long-term sustainable measures [102], especially in view of the recent trends of construction boom on the islands to meet the demands of a growing population. The latter is primarily driven by the influx economic migrant workers (EU and non-EU) to support the current growing economy of the Maltese Islands, with 14.1% of the population in 2017 being foreign citizens.

The establishment of a geopark could align well with the recent vision announced by the Maltese government to improve not only the quality of the tourists' experiences but also increase high expenditure and demand-oriented tourists [103,104], over and above the already high annual number of tourists reaching the islands (2.6 million in 2018). Geoparks have the strong potential to maximize the quality of these experiences expected by such higher-expenditure tourists and it would directly inject further policy actions in both geoconservation and geotourism strategies for the islands. In this framework, the recognition of viewpoint geosites, intended as "a specific locality which allows for unobstructed observation of the surrounding landscape and comprehension of Earth history recorded

in rocks, structures and landforms visible from this locality" [105], would be crucial for geo-education and outreach activities, and future research will be addressed to this.

**Author Contributions:** Conceptualization, P.C. and L.S.; methodology, P.C. and L.S.; investigation, R.G. and L.S.; writing—original draft preparation, P.C., R.G. and L.S.; writing—review and editing, P.C., R.G. and L.S.; visualization, L.S.; supervision, M.S.

**Funding:** The present work was carried out in the framework of the Project 'Hazard and Vulnerability Assessment—The Path to Identifying Risk' funded by the EUR-OPA Major Hazards Agreement of the Council of Europe (Ref No.: GA/2019/11; Scientific Responsible: Mauro Soldati).

**Acknowledgments:** The authors gratefully acknowledge Darren Saliba, manager at Il-Majjistral Nature and History Park, Malta.

**Conflicts of Interest:** The authors declare no conflict of interest.

#### **References**


© 2019 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

### *Article* **Assessing Geotourism Resources on a Local Level: A Case Study from Southern Moravia (Czech Republic)**

#### **Lucie Kubalíková**

Department of Geology and Pedology, Faculty of Forestry and Wood Technology, Mendel University in Brno, Zemˇedˇelská 3, 61300 Brno, Czech Republic; Lucie.Kubalikova@ugn.cas.cz

Received: 11 July 2019; Accepted: 20 August 2019; Published: 22 August 2019

**Abstract:** In the last decades, the geotourism has shown a considerable growth all over the world and it is appreciated and accepted as a useful tool for promoting natural and cultural heritage and for fostering local and regional economic development, especially within rural areas. Geotourism focus especially on the geological and geomorphological aspects of the landscape; however, according to the current holistic approach, it also builds on the close relations between geodiversity and other assets of the territory, such as biodiversity, archaeological and cultural values, gastronomy or architecture. Currently, geotourism activities are promoted mainly within geoparks, but other regions also possess an important geotourism potential. A complex assessment of the geotourism resources of a particular area is crucial for geotourism-development. The paper presents two case studies from Southern Moravia (Czech Republic) where the assessment of geotourism's potential was made by using the geomorphosite concept and extended SWOT analysis. Results show that these areas (situated outside the geoparks or large-scale protected areas and not far from a big city) have considerable potential for geotourism development, and geodiversity can be considered an important resource for local and regional development. Based on this, conclusions about the possibilities of geotourism development outside the geoparks are outlined.

**Keywords:** geodiversity; SWOT analysis; rural regions; geomorphosites

#### **1. Introduction**

In the last few decades, the geotourism has shown considerable growth all over the world [1–4]. Originally, and in a strict sense, the geotourism was defined in the 1990s as "the provision of interpretive and service facilities to enable tourists to acquire knowledge and understanding of the geology and geomorphology of a site (including its contribution to the development of the Earth sciences) beyond the level of mere aesthetic appreciation" [5]. A similar approach was presented by Słomka and Kici ´nska-Swiderska [ ´ 6], Joyce [7], and Dowling and Newsome [8].

In the broader sense, the geotourism is understood as a form of nature-tourism that focuses on landscape and geology, but also on the biotic and cultural features that are linked to the abiotic nature [9]. It is a so-called ABC (abiotic—biotic—culture) approach. This approach is also reflected in Arouca declaration [10] where geotourism is defined as "tourism which sustains and enhances the identity of a territory, taking into consideration its geology, environment, culture, aesthetics, heritage and the well-being of its residents." The economic and environmental aspects of geotourism are emphasized as well: Dowling [9] defines geotourism as "sustainable tourism with a primary focus on experiencing the Earth's geologic features in a way that fosters environmental and cultural understanding, appreciation and conservation, and is locally beneficial. Geotourism product protects, communicates and promotes geoheritage, helps build communities and works with a wide range of different people." Martini et al. [11] present a more literal and comprehensible definition: "Geotourism allows tourists to know the local geology but also to better understand that this geology is closely related to all the other assets of the territory, such as biodiversity, archaeological and cultural values, gastronomy, etc." The growing interest in geotourism and the interdisciplinary approach adopted for geotourism studies is reflected in the increasing number of papers and the wide scope of particular topics; e.g., geocultural heritage, geotourism's role in regional development or geotourist perceptions [4].

Currently, this holistic approach is widely respected [2], but geological, geomorphological, pedological and hydrological aspects (the components of geodiversity as defined by Gray [12]) stay in the center of attention and represent the basic resource for geotourist activities. Nevertheless, it has to be remembered that setting the links between geodiversity, biodiversity, culture, and history can help to appreciate the geodiversity as a full-value resource for tourist activities, and thus, as an important resource for local and regional development. This approach is widely applied, especially within geoparks, which are defined as areas with particular geological heritage and a sustainable territorial development strategy [13,14]. This is also the case of the Central European countries, including the Czech Republic: Geotourist activities are developed in geoparks [15,16] and in some cases, in large-scale protected areas such as National Parks or Protected Landscape Areas [17]. However, outside the geoparks, the geodiversity represents an important resource for geotourism development too (see case studies in [2,8,18]).

Two study areas in the South Moravian Region (shortly Southern Moravia) in the southeastern part of the Czech Republic were assessed by using the selected criteria within the geomorphosite concept [19,20] and extended SWOT analysis [21]. These areas are not a part of any geoparks or large-scale protected areas in the sense of the Law 114/1992 Coll [22]. The areas of interest (Deblínská vrchovina Highlands and Sýkoˇrská hornatina Mountains) were already a subject of scientific research, including the description of the potential sites of geoconservation and geotourist interest [23–27]; however, a complex assessment of geotourism resources was not elaborated—only the pilot assessment of geotourism resources of these areas and several sites was a subject of conference papers [23,24,28]. In these terms, the article brings a more complex view on the geotourism resources and their potential in these areas.

#### **2. Materials and Methods**

#### *2.1. Assessment of the Geotourism Potential*

To recognize the potential of an area for geotourism, it is necessary to undertake the detailed literature and map review and detailed fieldwork which takes into account both abiotic resources (geodiversity) and other types of resources that are related to geodiversity (biotic, cultural aspects) [18]. Numerous methods for assessing the geotourism potential have been developed (for an overview the works of [20,29–34] are relevant), but they have been limited to an assessment of particular geological or geomorphological sites. Larger areas were assessed by the methods using the GIS-based analysis, e.g., [35–39], but those procedures were usually focused on geoheritage management or implications for geoconservation and did not include the cultural or economical aspects that are essential for geotourism development.

As the geomorphosites are defined as landforms that have acquired a scientific, cultural/historical, aesthetic and/or social/economic value due to human perception or exploitation, and these landforms can be represented both by single geomorphological objects and wider landscapes [19,40], it is supposed that the criteria used within this concept for the assessment of single geomorphological objects can be applied for the qualitative assessment of larger areas ("wider landscapes") as well.

Within the geomorphosite assessment, the assessment criteria are usually divided into several groups (e.g., [19,20,41–44]): Scientific value, added value, economic value, and conservation value. For the qualitative and semi-quantitative assessment of the areas and specific sites of geotourist interest, the method proposed by Reynard et al. [20] is used (Table 1). This method was already applied in several cases; e.g., [45]. It includes all the groups of the values which correspond with a holistic approach to geotourism and respect five pillars of geotourism defined by [18]. The criteria for the site

assessment are applied without changes and numerical scoring is used. In the case of the assessment of "wider landscapes," some criteria were excluded, adapted and assessed qualitatively. The qualitative assessment is based on the detailed literature review, fieldwork and partly on the discussions with local people and it takes into account the assessment of particular sites.


0 (no ecological value) to 1 (high ecological value)

**Table 1.** Criteria used for the qualitative and semi-quantitative assessment of the geotourism potential


added value


The assessment is accompanied by extended SWOT analysis (Table 2) which is widely used as a common tool for local development strategies. Basic SWOT analysis has been already employed for the assessment of geotourist resources, e.g., [23,44,46,47], but extended SWOT analysis (or so-called "TOWS matrix") offers a more complex view on the geotourist resources as it provides important information about the applicability and feasibility of geotourism-development [21].


**Table 2.** Extended SWOT analysis ("TOWS matrix").

Coming out of this complex assessment, the possibilities of geotourism-development are presented.

#### *2.2. Study Areas*

The geotourist potential was analyzed in the two areas of interest: The Sýkoˇrská hornatina Mountains (the southern part) and Deblínská vrchovina Highland (Figure 1) which both belong to the geological unit of Svratka Dome ([27,48], Figure 2). Between these areas, Tišnovská kotlina and Šerkovická kotlina basins are situated and form a natural connection between the two areas. These areas are not a part of any geoparks or large-scale protected area (Protected Landscape Area or National Park according to the Czech legislative, [22]); they are of rural character and they already partly serve as a recreation base for people from the Moravian metropolis Brno and nearby towns.

**Figure 1.** Position of the study areas within the southeastern part of the Czech Republic and selected sites of geotourist-interest: S1—Dobrá studnˇe, S2—Hrušín, S3—pod Sokolí skálou, S4—Synalovské kopaniny, S5—Míchovec, S6—Veselský chlum, D1—Skalky, D2—kaolin pit, D3—abandoned limestone quarry, D4—karst spring, D5—Marškovský and Pejškovský potok streams, D6—Svratka valley, and D7—Vokoun's viewpoint.

**Figure 2.** Geological settings of the Deblínská vrchovina Highland and the southern part of the Sýkoˇrská hornatina Mountains (source data: [48,49]).

The detailed inventory and description of these areas were already undertaken [23,24,26,28]. The description of the specific sites which are important from the Earth-science point of view are included in the Database of Geological Localities [25], so only the brief characteristics of the study areas and selected sites of geotourist-interest are presented. The position of the sites can be seen in Figure 1.

#### 2.2.1. Sýkoˇrská Hornatina Mountains

The Sýkoˇrská hornatina Mountains are situated 30 km north from Brno city, which is the second largest city in the Czech Republic (approximately 380,000 inhabitants, but the real number of people living here is higher). The harmonious landscape with well-conserved natural resources proves the sustainable use of them and represents a good example of how the people exploited the landscape in the past (Figure 3a). The part of the area is legally protected within the Svratecká Hornatina Natural Park (which represents the lowest category of general nature conservation) and there are 12 sites protected within the category of National Reserve or National Monument [50]. Geologically, the area belongs to the northern part of the Svratka Dome [48]. The basement is rather monotonous and it is formed by biotite-muscovitic, sericite-muscovitic gneisses of the Bíteš group (Figure 3b) with limited occurrences of limestone and schists covered by quaternary sediments. In specific places, there are remnants of the marine sediments of the Ottnang age [49]. Despite the relatively monotonous geological composition, the morphological diversity of the area is very high. The landscape has been affected by several geomorphological processes, but the most significant landforms were created mainly by periglacial and cryogenic processes: Tors, castle-koppies, structural ridges, block accumulations and flows, nivation depressions, cryoplanation terraces, frost-riven cliffs, isolated boulders or congelifluction scree talus cones (Figure 3e). The anthropogenic landforms are present as well, especially those of agricultural origin (heaps, terraces, ramparts, and small walls). Due to the unique combination of geology and geomorphological landforms, the Sýkoˇrská hornatina Mountains belong to the best-preserved areas with periglacial and cryogenic landforms in the Czech Republic [24].

**Figure 3.** Sýkoˇrská hornatina Mountains: (**a**) A view on the Synalov village (harmonic landscape with scattered settlements). (**b**) Bíteš orthogneiss—the main rock that builds up the area. (**c**) Jewish cemetery in Lomnice—an important part of cultural heritage with links to geodiversity (use of local stone for tombs); (**d**) small sacral monuments are common within the area and contribute to the typical character of the landscape; (**e**) congelifluction scree talus cones, isolated boulders and block accumulations on the slopes of the Sýkoˇr Hill (the highest peak of the study area).

The study area is rich in cultural features. The historically and architectonically valuable objects in the Lomnice Township on the southern part of the area (e.g., the Jewish cemetery (Figure 3c), synagogue, plaque column, castle, and church) and in the Lysice Township in the eastern part of the area (e.g., the chateau and church) are the most important. In the villages, sacral buildings, traditional agricultural buildings, and other objects of folk architecture can be found. In the open landscape, the small sacral objects, e.g., crosses or small chapels, are common (Figure 3d). Usually, the local building stone was used there [24].

Based on the literature review and fieldwork, the sites of geotourist interest were identified. Within the selected six sites (S1–S6, displayed in Figure 1), the above mentioned geological and geomorphological features and their relationships to the biodiversity and cultural heritage of the area can be observed.

Site 1 (S1)—Dobrá studnˇe represents a complex of cryogenic landforms, especially the solifluction ones: Solifluction streams of several generations, terraces and occasional wet depressions can be found here. Locally, the massive gneiss boulders can be observed here. The largest solifluction stream is over 100 m long and 50 m wide, and together with others, indicates the existence of permafrost in the Pleistocene. The landforms have a crucial role for the differentiation of the vegetation cover; some of the endangered species live there.

As mentioned in the description of the geological settings of the area, the Bíteš gneiss is the main rock that builds the southern part of the Sýkoˇrská hornatina Mountains. It has a porfyroblastic structure and it is clearly stratified with the clearly distinctive layers and direction of the metamorphosis [49]. The typical example of this rock can be observed on Hrušín (S2). The site is rich in cryogenic landforms (frost cliffs, boulder fields with plate boulders, debris accumulations, and cryoplanation terraces) and mezoforms of polygenetic origin: Small fissure caves, abris, mushroom rock, or bedding cavities. The block streams and debris accumulations are important from the ecological point of view: Thanks to the specific geomorphological and pedological settings, a natural debris forest with a high diversity of plants and the occurrence of protected species is conserved here.

The Sokolí skála Rock (S3) is a massive outcrop built of marginal facies of the Bíteš orthogneiss. The gneiss layers alternate with amphibolite beds there, which is important from the petrographic point of view. Besides this, the site possesses a significant geomorphological aspect: The outcrop was formed thanks to the erosional activity of the Svratka River which formed the deeply incised valley there. This valley is of epigenetic origin: During the tertiary uplift of the eastern margin of the Bohemian Massive, the Svratka River eroded the Miocene sediments, and then it continued to erode the gneiss bedrock. This is especially important from the paleogeographic point of view.

Synalovské kopaniny (S4) represents an example of congelifluction scree talus cones on the slopes of the Sýkoˇr Hill which are the result of Pleistocene cryogenic processes. Within the locality, the traces of recent slope movements can be observed. In the past, the site was used mainly as pasture land. Thanks to this, the typical mosaic of meadows, pastures, forests, and boulders has been conserved here until now.

Míchovec (S5) represents typical cryogenic landforms of the area: Tors, nivation depressions, and block streams. The cryogenic landforms are similar to those in other localities, but thanks to specific microclimatic conditions, the nivation processes were relatively intensive and strong here—there are several nivation depressions with abri with a height over 4 m. Besides this, numerous fissure caves can be found there, and recumbent folds are observable on the walls of frost cliffs. The site is also important from the ecological point of view: The occurrence of well-conserved debris forests with a massive population of endangered species *Lunaria rediviva*.

Veselský chlum (S6) displays specific aspects of the study area's history and shows evidence of how the people in the past used the land and natural resources. Numerous anthropogenic landforms (especially agrarian terraces, ramparts, and unpaved walls made of flat gneiss stones collected from the surrounding fields and pastures) can be found here. The site is protected by law and the reason for protection is the well-conserved segment of the harmonious cultural landscape with a unique mosaic of pasture land, orchards, scattered greenery, and anthropogenic landforms with high aesthetic value. Moreover, the site is an important viewpoint geosite (as defined by [51]): It offers a view on the Svratka River valley and its surroundings, so the geomorphological context of the study area can be studied and observed here.

#### 2.2.2. Deblínská Vrchovina Highland

Deblínská vrchovina Highland lies about 25 km northwest from the Brno city. The area has a very varied geology, thanks to its position on the eastern margin of the Bohemian Massif. High lithological diversity implies a high diversity of landforms and processes. The area represents the harmonic landscape characterized by a mosaic of fields, forests, meadows, and ancient orchards. The southern margin of the area is a part of Bílý potok Natural Park [50]. The only Nature Reserve situated in the study area is represented by beech forests at Slunná; however, numerous geological and geomorphological

sites (rock outcrops and abandoned quarries) are included in the Database of Geological Localities [25]. Currently, the area represents similar recreational and touristic background for the Brno City as Sýkoˇrská hornatina Mountains (described in Section 2.2.1 Sýkoˇrská Hornatina Mountains); however, they both remain in the shade of popular, and geologically and geomorphologically spectacular Moravian Karst [52] which is visited more frequently.

The area is situated in the southern part of the Svratka Dome, a structure which includes Svratka massif (composed of the oldest rocks of the area: Prepalaeozoic intrusive and metamorphic rocks, Devonian basal clastics and limestone, and Carboniferous siliciclastic), and the Moravicum nappe which is made up of a weak metamorphosed volcano-sedimentary complex with prevailing phyllites and orthogneiss (metamorphosed Cadomian granite) [48,49]. Neogene is represented by Miocene and Pliocene freshwater sediments that fill older valleys and depressions between the Maršov and Lažánky villages. Here, the lower Miocene sediments with abundant fauna are overburden with clays, sands, and gravels [53]. Pleistocene is represented by fluvial sandy gravel, which often forms terraces at different heights above the present valley bottom. Loess sediments are also common and reach the thicknesses of up to 5 m. Holocene flood sediments are not very thick (maximum 2 m). The Holocene also includes anthropogenic sediments (heaps and dumps of the quarries) [53].

The fluvial, karst and anthropogenic landforms, together with polygenetic rock formations modeled by slope and cryogenic processes, represent the most significant features of the study area [23,26]. The origin of the remarkable landforms is often linked to the lithology; e.g., the resistant rocks (limestone, basal clastics, quartzite, and gneiss) formed significant outcrops and elevations (Figure 4a). The most important fluvial landforms are represented by the Svratka Valley (Figure 4b); typical fluvial mezoforms can be observed in Svratka's tributaries. Anthropogenic landforms are represented by the abandoned kaolin pit (Figure 4c), limestone quarries (Figure 4d), and remains from the medieval mining of ores (adits and heaps). The use of limestone can be traced back to the Middle Ages and until the present; the remains of old lime kilns are preserved (Figure 4e) and represent an important part of local cultural heritage [23]. Water management landforms are related to the streams and allow tracing the use of natural resources in the past (Figure 4f). Other cultural features of the area are represented by historical buildings in the Tišnov city (situated on the border of the area) and Pˇredklášteˇrí village (especially Cistercian convent Porta Coeli) where the local building stone and material from nearby quarries were used.

Based on the literature review and fieldwork, the sites of geotourist-interest were identified. The selected sites (D1–D7, displayed in Figure 1) allow observing and studying specific geological and geomorphological features, and their relationships to the cultural heritage and ecological aspects.

Site 1 (D1)— the rock outcrop Skalky, is built of resistant quartzite. Geomorphologically, it can be described as a monadnock. Similar outcrops are situated approximately 700 m southwest of the site, in the valley of Salašský potok Stream. There, they form natural steps and during the wet seasons, there are small waterfalls. The position of this lithological member of the parautochtonal Svratka Dome sediments is not clear yet, so the site is important as a study locality. Generally, these outcrops represent a typical example of selective erosion and on the surface; numerous meso- and microrelief phenomena (especially small caverns filled with calcite and baryte) can be seen.

The kaolin deposit in the old kaolin pit (D2) is situated on the contact zone of granodiorite and phyllites. Kaolin was exploited here at the beginning of the 20th century, but it was stopped in 1939 because of the bad quality of the material. During the active exploitation, several prospection shafts were dug there, and several lignite seams were discovered. Adjacent sediments (clays) are paleontologically rich and accompanied by gravels. They represent a relic of ancient valley fill. The site is interesting from the geomorphological point of view: Small abrasion cliffs and landslides can be observed on the pit slopes.

**Figure 4.** Deblínská vrchovina Highland: (**a**) Quartzite outcrops of Skalky—illustration of the role of the resistance of the rock. (**b**) Svratka River valley with gravel banks. (**c**) The flooded kaolin pit near Maršov; (**d**) an abandoned limestone quarry—one of the sites where the limestone for lime burning was extracted; numerous karst features are present there. (**e**) Remains of the Havílkova lime kiln near Lažánky, an important part of industrial heritage; (**f**) water management anthropogenic landforms—channels and water races were used by mills.

The evidence of limestone quarrying is represented by abandoned limestone quarry (D3). Within the area, there are several old quarries that are currently very well incorporated into the landscape, and increase landscape diversity. Slight karstification can be observed here, including karren, small caves, and cavities filled with calcite. The limestone extracted here was suitable for lime burning; near the site, an old lime kiln is situated. The site is thus important from the historical point of view as it brings forth the evidence of using the natural resources in the past.

Under the active limestone quarry (currently closed for public), on the right slope of Maršovský potok Stream, the karst spring is situated (site D4). It is probably connected with cave systems situated in the active quarry because during dry periods, the cavemen found the continuation towards the active quarry. In this quarry, (situated just several tens of meters north of the spring), several caves with were found and documented in the 1980s, but due to the progressive quarrying, these caves were destroyed. However, the existence of the spring, its hydrological aspects, and its continuation into the limestone massive suggest that there are uncovered cave systems situated beneath the current level of the lowest quarry bench.

The site D5 (Maršovský potok and Pejškovský potok streams) represents the complex of fluvial landforms. Both valleys are rich in meanders, empty oxbow lakes, cutoffs, alluvial ramparts, gravel banks, and other fluvial landforms. At Maršovský potok Stream, there is an observable alteration of floodplains and deeply incised segments of the valley, which follow the alteration of bedrock. Moreover, the traces of anthropogenic use of the watercourses can be seen here (old water races and small dams)

The Svratka Valley (D6) is an epigenetic valley where the relics of fluvial terraces in different heights above the present valley bottom can be found. Thus, the site has high paleogeographic importance. The site is also interesting from the geomorphological point of view: Numerous cryogenic landforms (frost cliffs, and boulder and debris accumulations) are situated here. Moreover, specific vegetation communities with the occurrence of rare and endangered species can be found here. Several thermophilic species have the northernmost border of their areal here thanks to the specific geomorphologic and climatic conditions (dry and steep southwestern slopes without forest).

The Vokoun's viewpoint (D7) represents a viewpoint geosite which allows for the observing of the Tišnovská kotlina Basin (with the Svratka floodplain, Kvˇetnice Hill and Dˇrínová quarry which are important from an Earth-science point of view, but situated outside the study areas) and a southern part of the Sýkoˇrská hornatina Mountains. The viewpoint is situated on the steep slope on the southern end of the village of Pˇredklášteˇrí, not far from an old gneiss quarry. The terrain was badly accessible and the view was obstructed by trees; however, thanks to the activity of local enthusiasts, the tourist facilities (steps, shelter, and information panel) were constructed and a newly marked tourist path leads there.

Both areas (Sýkoˇrská hornatina Mountains and Deblínská vrchovina Highland) were recently the subject of several large-scale paintings of Adam Kašpar who introduced them at a temporary exhibition in Tišnov. They have also been the subject of other painters in the past (e.g., J. Jambor). An important social event related to geodiversity is represented by traditional mineral exhibitions which are held two times per year in Tišnov.

#### **3. Results**

The study areas and the sites of geotourist-interest were assessed by using the methods described in chapter 2.1. The assessment of the sites of geotourist interest is presented in Table 3; the assessments of the areas were elaborated separately (Table 4 for Sýkoˇrská Hornatina Mountains and Table 5 for Deblínská vrchovina Highland). The SWOT analysis was elaborated for the two territories together, as they are situated close to each other and most of the characteristics of Sýkoˇrská hornatina Mountains and Deblínská vrchovina Highland are in common or very similar. Table 6 thus presents the basic SWOT analysis for both areas; Table 7 shows the extended SWOT analysis. Where the differences between the particular areas occur, they are marked by indexes (S for Sýkoˇrská hornatina Mountains, and D for Deblínská vrchovina Highland).

**Table 3.** Assessment of the sites of geotourism interest in the Sýkoˇrská hornatina Mountains (S1—S6) and Deblínská vrchovina Highland (D1—D7).



**Table 4.** Assessment of the Sýkoˇrská hornatina Mountains.


**Table 5.** Assessment of the Deblínská vrchovina Highland.

#### **Strengths**


#### **Opportunities**


#### **Threats**

a. the fast and inadequate development of the tourist infrastructure can cause the disturbances and damages to the landscape and particular geological and geomorphological phenomena

b. the continuing anthropogenic activity (inadequate land use) can negatively affect the character of villages or generally, the harmonic character of the landscape and it can change the aesthetic quality of the landscape

c. further preference of construction activity before nature conservation and sustainable development

#### **Table 7.** The extended SWOT analysis for both study areas.

#### **S-O Strategy (maxi-maxi)**


#### **S-T Strategy (maxi-mini)**


#### **W-O Strategy (mini-maxi)**


#### **W-T Strategy (mini-mini)**


#### **4. Discussion and Concluding Remarks**

The criteria used within geomorphosite concept proved to be a simple and comprehensive tool for qualitative and semi-quantitative assessment of geotourist resources within larger areas. The assessment of larger (wider) areas within a geomorphosite concept has some specifics—this assessment is rather qualitative and was based on expert knowledge, numerical assessment of particular sites, detailed fieldwork, or discussions with residents. A degree of subjectivity exists there; however, the qualitative assessment is probably more comprehensible for the local authorities or stakeholders than the numerical one. In the future, the assessment of geotourist resources can be accompanied, e.g., by an approach presented by Martins and Pereira [33], which is based on the perception of local people. The numerical assessment of the sites of geotourist interest which served as one of the bases for the qualitative assessment are more objective; however, the assessment of specific criteria within the Reynard's method remains relatively subjective (e.g., aesthetic value).

In comparison with the geomorphosite concept, the SWOT analysis represents an even more comprehensible tool for assessing geotourist resources. It is easily understandable for authorities, members of Local Action Groups, and other subjects that aim to participate in geotourism development, and thus can serve a simple way for assessing geotourist resources and setting the directions and possibilities of geotourism development as proved by numerous studies; e.g., [21,44,46,54,55].

Qualitative and semi-quantitative assessment, basic SWOT and extended SWOT analysis thus allowed us to identify the directions of geotourism development, and to propose particular activities to use the geotourist resources in a sustainable way. Based on this, specific strategies for geotourism development can be proposed:


principles. According to Dowling and Newsome [18], the geotourism should be sustainable and environmentally friendly, so this has to be respected while developing the tourist infrastructure, improving the access to the particular sites or building accommodation capacities.


As geodiversity represents a basis for the geotourism, it can be considered an important resource for the local and regional development. In order to use this resource in a responsible and sustainable way, the inventory and assessment of the geodiversity and geoheritage are the initial steps which have to be reflected in the plans for geotourism-development; e.g., [18,60,61]. In these terms, cooperation with universities and research institutions is more than desirable.

The particular outcomes from the assessment and basic/extended SWOT analysis can be used in strategic development document or planning. The plans have to follow the geoconservation rules and principles of sustainable development, and in the future, they can become a respected part of a local and regional planning and development conceptions and strategies.

**Funding:** The research was supported by Internal Grant Agency MENDELU, project number VP\_2018024.

**Acknowledgments:** The Author thanks the three anonymous reviewers for their helpful comments.

**Conflicts of Interest:** The author declares no conflict of interest.

#### **References**

1. Hose, T.A. 3G's for Modern Geotour. *Geoheritage* **2012**, *4*, 7–24. [CrossRef]


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*Article*
