3.1.1. Pharmaceuticals

Traces of pharmaceuticals and personal care products have been identified in a variety of freshwater sources, including drinking water [44], groundwater [45], and surface water [45]. Pharmaceuticals can enter the water system from various sources, including direct disposal and human excretion into sewers leading to elevated concentrations of pharmaceuticals in wastewater [46]. Pharmaceuticals often detected in sewage sludge include non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), blood thinners, psychiatric drugs, antidiuretics and β-blockers [47–49]. Plant uptake of a wide variety of pharmaceutical groups like NSAIDs, antihistamine, β-blockers, calcium channel blockers, antiepileptics, steroid hormones, antidepressants, antineoplastic agents, anti-itch compounds, x-ray contrast agents, lipid-lowering agents, benzodiazepines, tranquilizers and veterinary drugs from soil and contaminated water has been observed and studied [50–52]. Wu et al. reported that a primary pathway for contamination by pharmaceuticals in food crops is through irrigation water [53,54]. For example, a recent study found traces of carbamazepine, caffeine, lamotrigine, gabapentin and acesulfame in a variety of vegetables grown with treated wastewater in Jordan [55]. Treated wastewater is well known to contain a large variety of pharmaceuticals and personal care products, many of which are known to accumulate in food crops [56,57]. The occurrence of these and other synthetic organic chemicals is likely to increase in water supplies, especially in areas with water scarcity, and irrigation with contaminated water will lead to soil contamination and plant uptake.
