**7. Conclusions**

Here, we applied isotopic measurements as a direct technique to determine dietary patterns related to social class at the site of Xiaohucun, Henan Province, China. For the most part, the population was found to be consuming a predominately C4 diet (millets), although a single individual (M30) was found to have a mixed C4/C3 diet and could have been an immigrant to the community. No difference was found in the δ13C results of the individuals buried with bronze vessels (−9.1 ± 2.8%) and the individuals buried without bronze vessels (−8.2 ± 0.7%) but significant differences were present in the δ15N values: individuals buried with bronze vessels (10.3 ± 1.6%) vs. individuals buried without bronze vessels (8.0 ± 0.9%). Isotopic results were then compared by the number of burial coffins that an individual had: double, single, or without coffin. No difference was found in the δ13C values, but variations were observed in the δ15N values: double (10.2 ± 1.7%) > single (8.8 ± 1.8%) > no coffin (8.0 ± 1.3%), possible evidence of increased animal protein consumption with higher social status. Lastly, isotopic results and status were examined by the number of coffins and tomb size. Again, no correlation was seen with δ13C, but a linear correlation (R<sup>2</sup> = 0.85) was found for the δ15N values of the elites. Thus, additional social stratification could have existed among the elites with owners' wealthy/power enough to build larger tombs and possibly consuming more animal protein in their diets. These preliminary results of this pilot study offer a glimpse of the social hierarchy that existed during the late Shang Dynasty.

**Author Contributions:** Conceptualization, N.W.; resource, L.J.; Formal analysis, Y.S.; writing—original draft preparation, N.W.; writing—review and editing, N.W., X.J. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

**Funding:** This research was funded by the National Natural Science Foundation of China, gran<sup>t</sup> number 41603009, 41771223, The Ministry of education of Humanities and Social Science project, gran<sup>t</sup> number 16YJCZH100 and National Social Science Foundation of China, gran<sup>t</sup> number 18CKG023.

**Acknowledgments:** The authors thank Hu Yaowu (Fudan University, Shanghai) and Li Xiaoqiang (Institute of Vertebrate Paleontology and Paleoanthropology, CAS, Beijing) for supporting this study. Thanks to Guo Yi (Zhejiang University, Hangzhou) and Chen Xianglong (Institute of Archaeology, CASS, Beijing) for helpful comments. Wang Tingting and Zhang Xinyu (Institute of Vertebrate Paleontology and Paleoanthropology, CAS, Beijing) are thanked for collagen preparation.

**Conflicts of Interest:** The authors declare no conflict of interest.
