*4.2. Ba*ގ*al*

The god Baގal is known from three provenanced Ammonite inscriptions.<sup>13</sup> The Amman Theatre Inscription (*CAI*, no. 58) is a small basalt fragment with two broken lines of text dated to around 600 BCE. It was part of a longer inscription, perhaps meant for display. The first partial line of text has the name Baގal, followed by what is probably the verb, "I will build." Given the tiny amount of preserved text, it is not possible to say much about the inscription other than to discuss the individual words. It does seem significant though that the name Baގal appears on the type of inscription (an inscription on stone that was likely much bigger) that would normally record kingly deeds.

*CAI*, no. 129, which was discussed above (§ 4.1), is a seal found at Tall al-ގUmayri that reads, "(Belonging) to Milkomގor, servant of Baގalyašuގ. "The name of the person served—Baގalyašuގ—is most likely the king of the Ammonites (cf. Jeremiah 40:14). His name means, "Baގal is salvation" or "Baގal has saved." That a king would have a Baގal name does not mean that Baގal was necessarily closely connected to kingship in Ammon. On the other hand, someone among the Ammonite elite saw Baގal to be important enough to invoke him in their child's name. The last provenanced inscription that includes the name Baގal again comes from Tall al-ގUmayri, this time in the form of a seal impression on a jar rim (*CAI*, no. 173). The script on the inscription is likely Aramaic and dated to the late sixth or early fifth century BCE. The first line has the name Baގal and the second line only contains the first two letters of a word. It is possible that the two lines should be taken together as one name breaking

<sup>11</sup> On this phenomenon in Judah and Israel see (Smith 2001, pp. 47–53).

<sup>12</sup> Cornell's study also raises important methodological questions about the priority of the textual material from Ugarit (14th–13th c. BCE) for reconstructing Israelite and Judean religion. If the Ammonite material is prioritized as the closest analogue in time and space to Israel and Judah, the pattern for god mergers through which to view the history of Yahweh is not as strong (Cornell 2015).

<sup>13</sup> This deity name also occurs in the following non-provenanced inscriptions that are possibly Ammonite: Ø*CAI*, nos. 1, 9b, 38a, 59b, 175, 212.

over two lines, but whatever the case, the Baގal part is clear. Assuming it is part of a personal name, it provides one more bit of evidence for the worship of Baގal in the region.

It is not surprising to find references to Baގal in Ammonite inscriptions, as he was, in his various local permutations, well-known through much of the ancient Near East beginning in the third millennium BCE and well down into the first millennium. In some cases, the word *ba*ގ*al*, which means "lord" or "owner," seems to have been used as an epithet for other deities, while in others it is clearly a proper name of a god (Herrmann 1999, p. 132). The Ugaritic texts from Ras Shamra on the coast of Syria (14th–13th c. BCE) provide the most robust portrayals of Baގal and his various roles in kingship, fertility of the land via his control of the weather, and control over the sea, which was so important to sailors (Herrmann 1999, pp. 132–36). The significant friction on display in the Bible between the followers of Yahweh and the followers of Baގal highlights Baގal's role in nationalist politics and in the arena of fertility (see especially 1 Kings 17–19). It would thus not be surprising to find that Ammonites and their rulers included Baގal among the gods that they looked to for protection and sustenance. Baގalyašuގ's name suggests such a line of thinking, though it must also be admitted that the "salvation" included in his name most likely relates to his birth rather than anything to do with kingship. Whatever the precise role Baގal was understood to have among the Ammonites, the few occurrences of his name secure him a spot in the Ammonite pantheon and further demonstrate Ammonite participation in the much more broadly attested patterns of religion in the Iron Age.
