**5. Theophany**

In inscription 4.2, lines two and three appear to describe a theophany involving El and Yahweh, or El identified as Yahweh. The official publication suggested the verb *zrh.* "to shine forth", probably because this best fits the general context (see Ah. ituv et al. 2012, p. 110). However, the *zayin* is partially effaced, and it has been alternatively reconstructed as a *yod*—that is, *yrh.* "month" (Blum 2013, p. 31; Ah. ituv et al. 2015, p. 109). The problem with this alternative is that it does not make as much sense of the context. Moreover, the letter *zayin* could fit the traces even if *yod* seems more likely. In any case, even if line two is not reconstructed to include the verb, *zrh.* , the imagery in line three still closely resembles theophany scenes in the biblical texts (Deut 33:2; Isa 60:2; Hab 3:3; Ah. ituv 2014, p. 32). In these biblical texts, the shining forth of Yahweh connotes the luminosity that occurs in the divine march and the cultic presence and holiness of the god. Deuteronomy 33:1–2 illustrate this function of the verb in the context of a divine march scene:

Yahweh came from Sinai, and dawned from Seir upon us; he shone forth from Mount Paran, With him were myriads of holy ones; At his right a, a host of his own.

As these verses show, *zrh.* often conveys the divine appearance of Yahweh from the southeast. It alludes to the imagery of the sunrise and formed part of the constellation of terms used to associate deities with solar symbolism in the Iron Age (Smith 2002, p. 149; Weinfeld 1984, p. 126). Especially noteworthy here are the references to Sinai, Seir, and Mount Paran, which lie to the south and southeast of Kuntillet ޏAjrud.

The expression "the mountains melt" recalls the imagery of several biblical poems and carry forward theophany language. The imagery stands particularly close to the description of mountains shattering in Hab 3:6:

He stopped and shook the earth; He looked and made the nations tremble. The eternals mountains were shattered, Along his ancient pathways the everlasting hills sink low.

This passage from Habakkuk shares the imagery of mountains and hills quaking and shattering with line two of the plaster inscription. This imagery is undoubtedly drawn from the experience of frequent earthquakes in this region of the world (which is close the Great Rift Valley that divides the African and Arabian tectonic plates). This comparison is especially relevant here because the poem in Habakkuk 3 locates the theophany of Yahweh in the region of Teman and Paran (v. 3) (Smith 2012, pp. 1–27). Similar to the plaster inscriptions, Habakkuk 3 remembers Yahweh's origins in the region of Teman, mountainous landscape of the southeast (see Emerton 1982, pp. 2–20; Ah. ituv 2014, p. 32).

The use of the verb *mss* "melt" here in the theophany scene parallels the occurrence of the verb in Micah 1 and Psalm 97 (Ah. ituv et al. 2012, p. 111; Dobbs-Allsopp et al. 2004, p. 235; Keel and Uehlinger 1998, p. 244). Both passages employ the verb as part of descriptions of theophanies where the march of the deity causes the land to convulse and melt. The use of the verb in these two biblical texts parallels the plaster text here further with the use of the plural noun "mountains" (*hrym*) alongside the verb "melt" (*mss*). Micah 1:4 reads, "The mountains shall melt under him and the valleys burst open", whereas Psalm 97:5 reads, "Mountains melt like wax at Yahweh's presence".

It is not surprising that the plaster texts from Kuntillet ޏAjrud would include references to divine theophany language. The ability of a scribe to compose poetry that described the cultic presence of a deity would have stood at the very center of advanced scribal curriculum. While many studies focus upon the way that such imagery might be interpreted to reflect religious ideas, our texts from Kuntillet ޏAjrud offer a window into the types of religious motifs that scribes worked with as part of the practice of copying and memorizing poetic texts. Indeed, it is for this reason that it is not surprising that the small excerpts of poetry evident at this site bear close parallels to those biblical texts that describe divine theophanies and attendant imagery. The copying of texts that describe the gods in solar imagery would have had an especially important place in the training of scribes in the Iron IIB period. During this period, solar imagery was employed to describe both the king and the god, as both the textual and iconographic sources indicate (Smith 2002, pp. 154–55; Keel and Uehlinger 1998, pp. 248–81).

#### **6. Theomachy**

The last two lines of plaster inscription 4.2 describe a battle involving Baal and the name of El. If we are correct that line four alludes to Yahweh as the Holy One over the gods, then we may have in lines four through six a description of a divine battle between Yahweh and lesser deities. Although this must remain tentative, if this reading is accepted, it locates this text within the tradition of theomachies in West Semitic literature. Line 5 contains a call for Baal to be blessed on the day of war. The divine warfare imagery is reminiscent of several biblical texts that invoke blessings in connection with battles. Particularly noteworthy here are the calls for the tribes to bless Yahweh in the context of his divine march from Edom and Seir in Judges 5 (Ah. ituv et al. 2012, p. 114; also Wearne 2015, pp. 99–119). The relevant sections of the poem read: "when people volunteered—bless Yahweh!" (v. 2) and "the volunteers among the people—bless Yahweh!" (v. 9). The use of these phrases in Judges 5 is relevant here, because the context is a theophany of Yahweh and the description of Yahweh as a divine warrior. In the song, the call for the tribes to bless Yahweh appears alongside descriptions of Yahweh's march from Edom and Seir (v. 4), the quaking of mountains (v. 5), and reference to war in the gates.

Line 6 parallels line 5 with the phrase "to the name of El on the day of war". It is worth noting that this phrase, *yôm milh. am¯ ah¯* , appears in a variety of biblical texts (see Hos 10:14; Amos 1:14; Prov 21:31; cp. Deut 20:3; 1 Sam 13:22). Here we presumably have another call for a blessing on the day of war, but in this case the blessing is directed toward the name of El. The call for a blessing for the name of a deity is well known in the biblical texts. Invocations for Israel to bless Yahweh appear frequently in contexts marked by theophany imagery and divine warrior language. Blessing or giving thanks to the name of Yahweh is a characteristic feature of the language of the enthronement psalms (Ps 96:2; 97:12). Psalm 96 describes Yahweh as the God "above all the gods" who takes up residence in his sanctuary as the king who created the world. The psalm begins by calling for his subjects to "sing to Yahweh, and *bless his name*" (v. 2).

Similarly, Psalm 113 focuses upon the incomparability of Yahweh among the gods. He sits high above the gods and rules over the nations. Significantly, the first two verses of the psalm invoke blessings for his name before the descriptions of his royal residence above the earth. Taken together, these psalms locate the invocations for blessing the name of Yahweh directly before descriptions of

his incomparability and residence above the nations. While there are no clear references to divine battle in these psalms, the imagery is not far from it. The focus upon the incomparability of Yahweh, references to Yahweh's kingship, and the imagery of divine judgment and creation locate them within the traditional language of theomachy in West Semitic literature. Hence, these biblical texts provide the larger context for the meaning of the reference to blessing the name of El alongside theophany imagery in our plaster text. It is not surprising that the plaster text with its references to divine theophany the "Holy One" would also invoke blessings for the name of a deity on the day of battle. This is characteristic language of theophany and theomachy texts in the biblical literature.

A reference to the noun *šm* "name" in the context of theomachy and theophany is also not surprising. Studies have long argued that the noun in both Ugaritic and Hebrew texts signifies the cultic presence of a deity (Smith 2001, p. 74; McCarter 1987, p. 147; McBride 1969, p. 135–37; Sommer 2009, pp. 26–27). Particularly relevant here are those texts that employ the imagery of the divine name in contexts marked by divine war. Again, the theophany imagery of Psalm 29 is especially instructive. As Mark Smith observes, the expression "glory of his name" (*kbd šmw*) in this psalm conveys a sense of "the name as a divine quality with martial qualities" (Smith 2001, p. 74). In several other biblical texts, the imagery of the divine name appears in contexts where the concern is a theophany of Yahweh for protection against enemies (Isa 63:9; Ps 29:2). These texts make it clear that the construct of the noun *šm* + divine name reflects the wider significance that the name of a deity played in descriptions of theomachies in Near Eastern literature (Lewis 2011).

Recently, Ted Lewis has invoked a substantial body of texts to argue that the name of a deity had a specific application in human and divine warfare (Lewis 2011, pp. 219–21). His description of the use of the expression "name of YHWH" in Isa 30:27–33 is especially instructive here:

The name of Yahweh (*šm-yhwh*) comes from afar, In blazing wrath . . . His tongue like a devouring fire, His breadth like a raging torrent . . . In raging wrath, In a devouring blaze of fire, In tempest, and rainstorm, and hailstones. Truly, Assyria, who beats with the rod, Shall be cowed by the voice of Yahweh.

Lewis notes that the expression "name of deity" in certain contexts stands in parallel for physical weapons (Lewis 2011, p. 222). Based upon this evidence, he argues that the name of a god was used as an incantation in military contexts as an effective weapon of war. Summarizing the import of this observation for thinking about West Semitic poetry about divine war, he concludes, "As the name of the deity was invoked by humans in their battles, so too the names of warrior deities were used on a cosmic scale" (Lewis 2011, p. 222). Such arguments fit the context of the reference to the "name of El" in the plaster text. The text invokes the name of El on the day of battle. Although it is unclear how the name of El is being marshalled in this text or against whom it is going to battle, its function is clear. Our plaster text invokes the name of El as part of the preparations for divine battle. Invoking a blessing for the deity and summoning the name of the deity were part of verbal performances associated with war preparations.

One of the most well-known biblical accounts of divine warfare is the "Song of the Sea" (Exod 15). The song also highlights the importance of the divine name, *šm*, alongside the divine warrior. The song begins as an account of YHWH's glorious triumph. Enemies are subdued and cast into the Sea (v. 1b). The victor is proclaimed: "YHWH is a man of war (ގ*yš mlh. mh*), YHWH is his name" (v. 3). Based on its conclusion (v. 17), we may presume that the text was used as a temple liturgy. In its narrative context, it is merely a victory hymn. This reminds us of the imagery of the theomachy alluded to in the plaster text at Kuntillet ޏAjrud, but the parallel is primarily thematic. If the reconstruction of line 3 as a

reference to Yahweh as the Holy One is accepted, then we might have in these lines a description of Yahweh battling against Baal and the name of El. While it is possible that these divine names refer to hypostases of Yahweh, this must remain only a tentative hypothesis. It might be that we have a text that describes Yahweh over the gods Baal and the name of El. Taken together, then, lines 3–5 may refer to a battle between Yahweh and the lesser gods that resulted in Yahweh emerging victorious as the Holy One over the gods. In this case, we would have an Israelian text that offers a window into the emergence of the "divine warrior" Yahweh as a national god of the northern kingdom over Baal.
