*2.3. Analytic Strategy*

We used multiple mediation analyses with bootstrapping method using the SAS PROCESS macro [53]. This method allows for the estimation of the indirect effect, based on the product (×) of the effect of a predictor on a mediator and the effect of the mediator on an outcome. The indirect effect reflects "a × b" in Figure 1. The bootstrapping method also produces a bias-corrected confidence interval for the indirect effect [53]. In all models, we set the number of bootstrap samples to 10,000.

#### **3. Results**

Table 1 shows descriptive results of our variables and comparisons by industry. Beginning with sociodemographic characteristics, the average age of our sample was 42.85 years (*SD* = 8.01) and banking industry employees were older than healthcare industry employees (no difference with education industry employees). Sixty-one percent were women, with a higher proportion of women in the education industry (78%). The majority of the employees (70%) were college graduates or had higher education; this trend was more apparent in the education industry (91%) than in the banking industry (54%). The mean work hours was 43.83 h per week (*SD* = 6.22) and banking industry employees worked significantly longer hours than those in the other two industries.

In terms of our main variables, the mean exposure to workplace bullying for an average employee was not so high (*M* = 5.30 on a 0–22 range scale); yet, there was a great variability between employees (*SD* = 5.33). More than half of employees (54%) endorsed one particular item, "Someone withholding information which affects your performance." Employees in the healthcare and banking industries reported significantly more exposure to workplace bullying than those in the education industry (with no difference between healthcare and banking). Our sample of employees reported a moderate level of work-to-family conflict (*M* = 2.97 on a 5 point scale) and a high level of quality of life (*M* = 3.62 on a 5 point scale), on average, with no differences by industry. The mean level of occupational health was moderate (*M* = 3.19 on a 5 point scale), and it was higher for education industry employees than for banking industry employees.

Table 2 shows results of the mediation model examining the effect of workplace bullying on quality of life through work-to-family conflict. The first column presents the results of "a" path, the association of workplace bullying with work-to-family conflict adjusting for covariates. Employees in the healthcare and education industries reported lower work-to-family conflict than those in the banking industry. Women (vs. men), employees with college or higher education (vs. not), and those with longer work hours reported higher work-to-family conflict. After controlling for these effects, there was a significant association of workplace bullying with work-to-family conflict, such that more exposure to workplace bullying was associated with higher work-to-family conflict. Moreover, higher work-to-family conflict was associated with lower quality of life ("b" path, second column). Before including work-to-family conflict, there was a significant negative association of workplace bullying with quality of life ("c" path; *B* = −0.034, *SE* = 0.007, *p* < 0.001); this association was slightly reduced after including work-to-family conflict ("c'" path; *B* = −0.027, *SE* = 0.007, *p* < 0.001). The association was found after adjusting for industry, sociodemographic characteristics, and work hours (none of them were significant). On the whole, then, the model revealed a significant indirect effect of workplace bullying on quality of life mediated by work-to-family conflict. Twenty percent of the total effect of workplace bullying on quality of life was explained by the indirect effect through work-to-family conflict.

Table 3 shows results of the mediation model examining the effect of workplace bullying on occupational health through work-to-family conflict. Consistent with the previous model (Table 2), more exposure to workplace bullying was associated with higher work-to-family conflict ("a" path). Further, higher work-to-family conflict was associated with lower occupational health ("b" path). This link was independent of the significant associations of education industry (vs. banking) and older age with higher occupational health. The total effect of workplace bullying on occupational health was also significant ("c" path; *B* = −0.031, *SE* = 0.009, *p* < .01). However, after including work-to-family conflict, the direct association of workplace bullying with occupational health was reduced ("c'" path; *B* = −0.018, *SE* = 0.009, *p* < 0.05). Overall, the model revealed a significant indirect effect of workplace bullying on occupational health mediated by work-to-family conflict. Forty-one percent of the total effect of workplace bullying on occupational health was due to the indirect effect through work-to-family conflict.



Note: *N* = 307 Korean employees. X refers to predictor; M refers to mediator; Y refers to outcome. \* *p* < 0.05, \*\*\* *p* < 0.001.

**Table 3.** The effect of workplace bullying on occupational health, mediated by work-to-family.


Note: *N* = 307 Korean employees. \* *p* < 0.05, \*\* *p* < 0.01, \*\*\* *p* < 0.001.

Figure 2 summarizes our results showing the mediating effects of work-to-family conflict on the links between workplace bullying and two well-being outcomes. More exposure to workplace bullying was associated with higher work-to-family conflict (i.e., H1 supported), which was, in turn, associated with lower levels of quality of life and occupational health (i.e., H2 supported). Work-to-family conflict was a significant mediator in the association between workplace bullying and well-being (i.e., H3 supported).

**Figure 2.** The mediating effects of work-to-family conflict on the links between workplace bullying on well-being outcomes. **Note**: Analyses adjusted for industry, age, gender, education, and work hours. "a × b" indicates the indirect effect of X on Y through M. "c" indicates the total effect of X on Y. "c'" indicates the direct effect of X on Y after controlling for the effect of M on Y.

#### **4. Discussion**

Guided by the work-family interface model [7–9], we examined the mediating role of work-to-family conflict in the associations between workplace bullying and well-being outcomes among Korean employees. Consistent with our hypotheses, results revealed that more exposure to workplace bullying was associated with greater work-to-family conflict, and greater work-to-family conflict was further associated with lower quality of life and occupational health. We have found no other studies that report the consequences and mechanisms of workplace bullying in Korean employees. Given that workplace bullying is a serious issue in many countries [3], our findings may add regional empirical evidence to the literature on workplace bullying.

We found that Korean employees who had more exposure to workplace bullying reported experiencing greater work-to-family conflict. This finding supports the work-family interface model [7–9] which suggests that stressful work experiences such as workplace bullying may spill over into employees' non-work domains and interfere with family and personal activities. Specifically, stress from workplace bullying experiences might have threatened employees' psychological resources and thus reduce their ability to be involved in family and personal roles and responsibilities [35–39]. Note that the mean levels of workplace bullying exposure and work-to-family conflict experiences were not high in our sample, but the two variables were positively covaried. It may also be important to mention differences in the levels of workplace bullying and work-to-family conflict by industry. We observed that Korean employees in the healthcare and banking industries reported significantly more exposure to workplace bullying than those in the education industry (see Table 1). Moreover, Korean employees in the healthcare and education industries reported higher work-to-family conflict than those in the banking industry after adjusting for sociodemographic characteristics and work hours (see Table 2). However, the positive association between workplace bullying and work-to-family conflict was found across the three industries, which may suggest the strong link between them.

Our results also revealed that greater work-to-family conflict was associated with lower levels of quality of life and occupational health. This is in line with previous studies that report the negative consequences of work-to-family conflict on employee health and well-being [14–19]. Korean employees work long hours and work in hierarchical culture [42,45,46], all of which may be risk factors for work-to-family conflict and degraded well-being. Given that happier employees are more productive at work [54], Korean employers should make more efforts to reduce work-to-family conflict and thereby improve their employees' well-being. For example, a workplace intervention designed to increase supervisor support may reduce work-to-family conflict [55], and by doing so, improve employee health and well-being [14,56].

Combining these results, this study observed that workplace bullying was associated with employee well-being (i.e., quality of life, occupational health), and this association was partially mediated by work-to-family conflict. Before adding work-to-family conflict in our analytic models, workplace bullying was significantly associated with quality of life and occupational health. However, these associations became weaker after including work-to-family conflict. Although not fully mediated, considerable proportions in the total effects of workplace bullying on quality of life (24%) and occupational health (41%) were explained by work-to-family conflict. This study contributes to understanding the mechanisms in which workplace bullying is linked to Korean employees' well-being. Future research may need to consider other potential mechanisms linking workplace bullying and employee well-being, as we found that work-to-family conflict did not fully mediate the association.
