*4.3. Is There a Use Right that Can be Linked to an Individual or Group?*

Another possible explanation for the linkage of individual or group-based LURs might be that land use is homogenous between adjacent land parcels and buildings. A characteristic feature of an individual right as compared to a group right is that there is a large variety in land use between neighboring parcels. In a group land tenure, people tend to converge to similar crops or building and housing types. The observed land use can be connected to an observed set of combined proxies on the land rights: similarity or dissimilarity of neighboring land use in space and over time; changes in the adjacent buildings or houses; changes in the road infrastructure; number of buildings in a certain vicinity.

Cooperative farms in NK are based on collective ownership. Along with economic activities, cooperative farms function as rural communities that manage collective socio-cultural activities. However, property rights are exercised by the State, and households only have exclusive LURs. Therefore, all the means of production and socio-cultural facilities, including land, are entitled to group-based LURs. The multiple objects of socio-cultural facilities incorporate 'cultural houses' (rural houses with welfare facilities), various community amenities, and nurseries and kindergartens. These possible proxies could define multiple LURs of groups over the same piece of land with specific characteristics such as building geometry, arrangement pattern, roofing color, and site characteristics with EO data.

Figure 7 presents an amalgamation of diverse community amenities: government offices (e.g., a cooperative farm management committee and a party committee), educational institutions (e.g., a middle school and a kindergarten), medical facilities (e.g., hospital), and socio-cultural facilities (e.g., station, a park, a skate park, a restaurant and hotel, revolutionary museum, monuments—see Figure 7a,b). These regular arrangement patterns of building objects are a common feature that appears in collective farms, thus representing group-based LURs. As (c) indicated, we found that significant land use changes from the cultivated farmlands to residential areas (confirmed by the presence of multiple building objects with similar looks, a high density of settlement, simple rectangular forms and same roof colors in red scales) occurred. The objects with a similar appearance are perceived as a group figure or shape, and thus the similarity/dissimilarity of neighboring land use in space and over time with other contextual knowledge (such as relationship, adjacency, inclusion, composition, and neighborhood) can be regarded as workable proxies for defining group LURs.

Indeed, the site, situation and structure of objects in the urban/rural landscape on the image helps identify their significance and (d) depicts changes of former settlements as a newly built community asset (for a skate park) in line with improved access to road (types: paved road and wider widths) surrounded areas. Therefore, the (re-)construction/extension of community buildings or infrastructure by the existing building removal could become proxies for LURs linked to group tenure. In the same vein, (e) indicates that agriculture infrastructure is not newly located where it was fallow or barren land, but also adjacent to the residential dwellings. With the acquired EO data, (vinyl) greenhouses as a particular form of non-irrigated arable land have been identified with some elements of image interpretation: building materials (plastic or glass), roof colors (white or grey), brightness (light), and texture (rough). Hence, the changes of association elements with the close proximity or adjacency to the agriculture-related objects or neighborhood and specific characteristics of the objects might quantify group-based LURs. Then, (f) interprets the increase of the number of houses (high building density) in a certain vicinity over time. While this phenomenon can be seen as an increase in an individuals' LUR, it can also be regarded as an increase in the group-based LUR, as NK's housing supply is mainly carried out on cooperative farms to improve agricultural productivity. Therefore, there have to be more proxies to make this argument complete.

The existence of undivided shared areas of the common property or public infrastructures between the roads or buildings can be regarded as a proxy that can be related to the collective LURs. Under the socialist urban planning system in NK, the arrangement standards for housing and neighboring residential structures are based on the sub-district plan that housing and production facilities should be located adjacent and in the vicinity of the planned area. Within the sub-district, diverse socio-cultural facilities are located and observed with relatively low building density in scope. This is a proxy that emphasizes the straightforward approach and characterizes the socialist lifestyle based on a community unit rather than the individual [81].
