**3. Results**

#### *3.1. Subject Characteristics*

Eighty male patients were recruited for the study, aged between 30 and 80 years old. The demographic data for all individuals are presented in Table 2. There were no significant differences between non-CVD and CVD patients in terms of their age, education, or employment. However, there was a difference between non-CVD and CVD patients in terms of their family history, with significantly more CVD patients having at least one first-degree relative with CVD (*p* = 0.02; Table 3). The anthropometric characteristics, including blood pressure, weight, and BMI, were not significantly different between non-CVD and CVD patients (Table 4). The median BMI for both non-CVD and CVD patients was within the overweight cut-off range, with a value of 27.2 kg/m<sup>2</sup> (IQR 23.4–31.1) for the non-CVD patients and 25.7 kg/m<sup>2</sup> (IQR 23.4–27.7) for the CVD patients. The median waist circumference was within the normal range (< 102 cm) for both non-CVD (95.0 cm; IQR 85.8–100.0) and CVD patients (94.0 cm; IQR 90.0–98.3).


**Table 2.** Demographic data of the study participants.

*n*: number of patients; CVD: cardiovascular disease. \* *p*-value between non-CVD and CVD patients.

**Table 3.** Family and smoking history of the study participants.


*n*: number of patients; CVD: cardiovascular disease. \* *p*-value between non-CVD and CVD patients.



*n*: number of patients; CVD: cardiovascular disease; BMI: body mass index; BP: blood pressure; WC: waist circumference. \* *p*-value between non-CVD and CVD patients.

#### *3.2. Habitual Dietary Intake*

The score of total adherence to the Saudi dietary guidelines was not significantly different between the non-CVD and CVD patients (Table 5); however, there were differences in adherence to dietary intake of some individual food groups. The specific adherence scores of fruit (*p* = 0.02), olive oil (*p* = 0.01), and non-alcoholic beer (*p* = 0.02) groups were significantly higher in the non-CVD patients (Table 5).


**Table 5.** The score of the adherence to the Saudi dietary guidelines.

CVD: cardiovascular disease. \* *p*-value between non-CVD and CVD patients.

Moreover, we evaluated the effect of the Saudi diet on various health outcomes such as systolic blood pressure, serum cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein, high-density lipoprotein, triglycerides, waist circumference, and body mass index. Table 6 shows the results of multiple linear regression after adjusting for age, smoking history, educational level, diabetic history, and family history of CVD. There were only significant associations found between the total adherence to Saudi dietary guideline score and serum total cholesterol and LDL.

**Table 6.** The association between different clinical and anthropometric factors (dependent) and total adherence to Saudi dietary guideline score (independent). Results of multiple linear regression analysis.


All models were adjusted for age, smoking history, educational level, diabetic history, and family history of CVD. SE: Standard error.

#### *3.3. Blood Variables*

There were no significant differences in the lipid profile measurements of total cholesterol, triglycerides, or LDL between the non-CVD and CVD patients (Table 7). However, the HDL was significantly higher in the CVD patients compared to the non-CVD patients (*p* = 0.03). The HDL was 1.1 mmol/L (IQR 1.0–1.5) in the CVD patients and 1.0 mmol/L (IQR 0.6–1.1) in the non-CVD patients. There was no difference in hematological profile, with the exception of the median fasting blood

glucose level, which was raised in all patients (normal range <5.6 mmol/L), but significantly higher (*p* = 0.006) in the CVD patients (7.5 mmol/L; IQR 6.2–11.7) than the non-CVD patients (6.1 mmol/L; IQR 5.1–7.2). In terms of the electrolyte and cardiac enzyme levels (Table 7), all biomarkers were non-significant between the non-CVD and CVD patients, with the exception of the potassium level (*p* = 0.03), which was within normal range (3.6–5.2 mmol/L) for all patients, but significantly higher in the CVD patients 4.1 mmol/L (IQR 3.5–4.4) than the non-CVD patients 3.7 mmol/L (IQR 3.5–4.0). In contrast, the chloride level was also within the normal range for all patients (98–106 mmol/L) but significantly lower (*p* = 0.05) in the CVD patients (99.0 mmol/L; IQR 94.8–102.0) compared to the non-CVD patients (101.0 mmol/L; IQR 98.0–104.0).


**Table 7.** Cardiovascular-related biomarkers.

TC = total cholesterol; TG = triglycerides; LDL = low-density lipoprotein; HDL = high-density lipoprotein; FBG = fasting blood glucose; HbA1 = glycated hemoglobin; HGB = hemoglobin; HCT = hematocrit; Na = sodium; K = potassium; Cl = chloride; AST = aspartate aminotransferase; CK = creatine kinase; LDH = lactate dehydrogenase; CTN-I = cardiac troponin I. \* *p*-value between non-CVD and CVD patients.
