*4.2. Quantitative Analysis*

In recent years, there has been an increase in entrepreneurial intention in university students, but it has not yet reached high levels [1]. However, entrepreneurial education programmes and other factors contribute to enhancing entrepreneurial intention and this question has been widely researched [11,85–87]. The aim of the study is to establish which tools are more efficient in improving entrepreneurial competences, understanding these as a key factor not only for business creation but also for employability. In this section, attention is paid to entrepreneurial competences and entrepreneurial intention as an indicator of being better prepared to face the labour market and professional development. Even so, it should be pointed out that quantitative analysis is not the core of this study. Firstly, some basic statistics are provided, and a regression analysis is found below.

Entrepreneurial intention before and after participating in training activities reveals a significant difference at the level of 0.3% (Table 4). Despite a general improvement in entrepreneurial intention, student's intention to start a business is moderate. However, it is worth noting that the item referring to the desire to start a business one day reached almost the maximum of 6 after participating in training activities. In this way, the item with fewer differences before and after participating is <I am ready to become an entrepreneur>. In both measurements, the score does not reach 4. That could mean that setting up one's own business is attractive but is long-term. This statement is reinforcing on the basis on the discussion held in focus groups, as well as in previous studies, highlighting Iqbal et al. [51], Fayolle et al. [11], and Nabi et al. [22]. Although it seems to have little relevance in quantitative terms, the qualitative results provide an interesting explanation of these values.

The research work focused on the positive effect between an entrepreneurial education program and entrepreneurial intentions are often found in the reviews of the literature [81]. In contrast, it is not usual to find evidence about how entrepreneurial competences should be learnt [12,88]. This is the reason that the focus is on the acquisition of entrepreneurial competences through educational programs. In Table 4, how this experiential learning contributes to gain these kinds of skills is shown. All the values are notably increased after the participation in the training activities.


**Table 4.** Average entrepreneurial intention and entrepreneurial competences before and after participating in training activities.

Although good progress has already been made in this field, there is no unanimous answer to the discussion about which pedagogical methods and learning tools are more efficient in higher education from the point of view of entrepreneurship [11,87]. An additional effort should, therefore, be made in this research line [40]. This study shows a significant correlation between entrepreneurial intention and training activities at the level of 0.05. However, the main point is to find out which tools can better improve entrepreneurial competences. Table 5 shows the impact of each one on entrepreneurial intention. All levels are quite similar but including the qualitative vision in the later analysis again allows the contrast of impressions and feelings regarding traditional learning methods and practical approaches to be appreciated.

**Table 5.** Entrepreneurial intention classified by type of training activity.


To provide a holistic vision, a regression analysis was performed. The analysis of data aimed to confirm the working hypothesis that asserts the existence of relationships between each entrepreneurial competence considered in this study (risk aversion, creativity, and proactivity) and the dependent variables tested (entrepreneurial intention and employment) applying the multivariate regression technique for each model of relationships. This research work focuses on three parameters to validate the aforementioned hypotheses: the fit of the model, the ANOVA table, and the Durbin-Watson test.

Previously, the correlation matrix for entrepreneurial intention and employability is positive, although changes were detected in the weight of the predictors in each model. Consequently, hypothesis 1.1 and 1.2 are tested.

Hypothesis 2 and 3, relate the three entrepreneurial competences with entrepreneurial intention and employability, shows the dependence separately. Consequently, both are positively confirmed. The coefficient of multiple correlations and its square indicate that the proportion of the variance of dependent variables explains 78% of the model in the case of entrepreneurial intention and 77% in the case of the improvement of employability (Table 6). The explained variance is reduced if we take the value of the adjusted R Square to 53% and 52% respectively. The sample size allows us to consider as statistically significant lower levels of R2 in samples ranging from up to 350 with a number of independent variables of 10 [76]. Consequently, for our case study, the explanatory capacity of the model is accepted.


**Table 6.** Model summary.

a. Predictors: (Constant), Psp, Cnw, ARsi, ARr, ARer, Ci, Pow, Pi, Co. b. Dependent variable: Model 1. Entrepeneurial Intention/Model 2. Employability.

The regression model has been applied by following two methods: the default method, in which all variables are entered into the equation, and the backward elimination method, in which the variables are entered into the equation and then the variables that contribute less to the model are eliminated sequentially to correct the lower partial correlations and thus offer a more appropriate value of adjusted R2. The ANOVA table (Table 7) confirms that the result of the analysis of variance of the model is significant because the value is 0.00. This coefficient allows discarding the null hypothesis and demonstrates a linear relationship between the dependent variables and the independent variables that is not due to a chance.


**Table 7.** ANOVA.

The last step was the Durbin Watson test. It confirms that the residues are serially correlated. The suggested values to state the residues are independent should be in the range of 1.5 and 2.5 and these values are fulfilled for both models of regression (Table 6).

For the purposes of this particular study, the most important finding is the empirical demonstration that the training of entrepreneurial competences has an overall positive impact on entrepreneurial intention and on employability. Basis on linear regression we can measure significant differences in each of the two dimensions between university students after their participation in the training activities. Creativity, risk aversion, and proactivity impact positively on entrepreneurial intention and employability as well. Consequently, the three proposed hypotheses are tested.

#### *4.3. Qualitative Analysis*

Three focus groups were conducted in order to have a complete view of the topic. Sixteen students and eight lecturers were recruited to participate in focus groups. As explained in detail above, five persons who had not participated in the training competences activities are included in the groups. Moreover, one entrepreneur specializing in design dynamics was included in the focus group with university lecturers and an effort was made to ensure that each group had participants from the Business and Management area and also Non-Business and Management, along with including students in their final and first years and lecturers linked to the business creation subject and who are not linked. Finally, the gender distribution is similar in each group. Table 8 shows the profiles and composition of focus groups.


8. Non-participant lecturer in the pilot training activities, with no relationship with business creation

programmes but with some involvement in work experience programmes (M)

The content analysis of the transcript resulted in 4 themes: entrepreneurship, employability, teaching methods, and competences (based on main objectives and core topics for the research), which were used to set the categories and the codes, based on the prompted topics within the groups and supported in the literature review. Deductive and inductive methods for creating codes have thus been combined [89]. Table 9 shows the different conceptual levels.


**Table 9.** Key themes, categories and codes.

**Table 8.** Participants in focus groups.

The key themes were discussed extensively and the categories and particularly the codes therefore summarize the content from the discussions held in the groups. This result derives from a clean-up exercise to correct and delete duplication or reduce similar concepts to a single code.

Figure 1 shows the occurrence frequency of each code in the three focus groups and, consequently, the relevance of each topic.


**Figure 1.** Codes Wood. Source: In-house elaboration with support of Atlas.ti.

Finally, a network figure was used to show the relationship between concepts, to connect them, simplify the discussed ideas and to supply an overall view (Figure 2). This phase is called relational and is based on frequencies, relationships found in categories and codes.

**Figure 2.** Codes network entrepreneurial competences Training. Source: In-house elaboration with support of Atlas.ti.

Looking at the details of tools and their measurements more effectively (Table 10), it should be stated clearly that the practical case with an entrepreneur gets the best overall results (5.5), followed by the hackathon (5.3), the team building (5), and role playing (5,5) is placed lowest in the ranking (4.8). These values agree with the comments and remarks made by students in the focus groups. Nevertheless, there is a contribution of some training activities to additional extra competences. For example, the hackathon is the training activity that allows the participants to better developed creativity and risk tasking is trained more with the practical case with an entrepreneur. Meanwhile, the role playing is shown as the best tool for improving empathy and negotiation skills and team building is positively valued for acquiring communication skills.


**Table 10.** Entrepreneurial intention and competences classified by type of training activity.

#### **5. Conclusions and Discussion**

The most interesting conclusion has arisen out of the qualitative analysis. However, the multivariate analysis provides an in positively sight into the positive effect of training entrepreneurial competences on entrepreneurial intention and employability. It will be the focus that should be at the forefront of future research. Centring on quantitative analysis, this research work demonstrates the relationship between acquisition of entrepreneurial competences and entrepreneurial intention. However, the main contribution is shown as the training these kinds of skills can contribute to the employability. Although in this study employability is a students' personal perception and a definitive confirmation supported with companies should be developed in the future. The model of relations of dependency proposed in hypothesis 3 is tested. In previous research works, as Liñán and Fayolle [81] the testing of the positive effects between competences and entrepreneurial intention is widely examined but the introduction of employability is less common [64,90]. Moreover, seeking the capacity of different training activities to influence both factors is the main contribution of this research work.

The three focus groups explain briefly the potential between training competences and employability in line with Rae [16], Sánchez [10] and O'Leary [13]. Moreover, there is a consensus regarding innovative and practical methods having positive effects on learning, on motivation and on the predisposition of students [4,11,87]. The results allow us to obtain a positive response to the first research question raised. The general perception among major education stakeholders is that competences are useful for facing the labour market better and, specifically, entrepreneurial competences are more greatly appreciated by companies. So, they are not only a key for self-employment. Curiously, both lecturers and students stressed they would like to participate in these kinds of practices but emphasized how hard it was to achieve, usually due to a lack of tools, or as the result of the relative rigidity of education programmes in higher education. This statement reinforces the positive relationship between participating in entrepreneurial education programmes and increasing entrepreneurial intention [45]. Furthermore, this study provides keys to show which and how learning methods and practices are more effective. In this way, Neergaard et al. [19] also coincide with the reflection that higher education often focuses on knowledge acquisition, rather than the deeply experiential approaches and searching for the collaboration of students. Lecturers also assume the need to be trained, advised, equipped, and supported for this challenge, and curricula need to be modernized [63]. It should also be noted that the participants agree that the right balance between knowledge and competences should be established in order to achieve quality higher education and to ensure a better match between academic requests and labour market demands. This is in line with Wells [91] and Cai [66]. Regarding previous literature, this study delves deeper into a didactical level of training activities for training entrepreneurial competences. It should be emphasized that this study completes and is somewhat similar to the results of Morris et al. [62] Following the directions of Fayolle [21] audience, knowledge and content, objectives, methods, and assessment are described and evaluated to provide a wide and comparative vision of each learning tool. In addition to contributing to the field of entrepreneurial

education based on competences, the details of how it is done in practice are also given. Consequently, this initiative may show enough to allow other universities and researchers to carry out these activities and continue in this line.

There is a unanimous consensus about how competences help them as lecturers and as students to improve to face not only their professional challenges but also their daily lives as well. In this regard, the highlighted gap [45,46] receives more attention and more evidence is provided. Certain participants raised some doubts, but they specifically highlight the direct impact on their skills when there are only specific training competences activities. In general, all participants were receptive to these experiences and they felt that training competences had a positive effect on them.

Focusing on entrepreneurship, the change of perspective regarding how being an entrepreneur should be emphasized. It seems that, generally speaking, students link entrepreneurship to business creation, and they had not previously thought about it as an attitude to life. In this line of thought, the research work by Lans et al. [12] reinforces the statement that entrepreneurial competences have a positive implication beyond having a business. Additionally, training activities have generated improvements in the traditional entrepreneurial view. It is particularly noticeable in those who have participated in solving a practical case with an entrepreneur. The downside to current business creation teaching methods is that it seems boring or scarcely credible. Elaborating a business plan is not seen by most students as a motivating activity to awaken their entrepreneurial spirit, rather the contrary. In any event, this question is consistent with the opinions expressed in favour of the innovative and practical learning methods coinciding with the considerations of Dacre Pool and Seewell [64]. University image is closely linked to the previous topics. Participants affirm that innovative teaching methods and taking the most valuable labour market competences into account could bring considerable improvements in this regard. Even today, university is considered an educational institution with a rigid structure, quite permeable to the environment and the student requests. However, the efforts towards openness and experiences to introduce innovative learning methods are a chance to modernise and positively change its image, according to the opinions given. Additionally, the entrepreneurial view should be highlighted as entrepreneurs reinforce the idea regarding the change of focus needed in the relationship between university and business sector. They appreciate that the university is seeking to improve graduate employability, adapting their competences to labour market requirements. In a certain way, adapting curricula to achieve a positive effect on the competences for entrepreneurship agrees with Arranz et al. [63].

To sum up, the most influential training activities on students' skills have the following factors in common: (1) they are based upon real problems or situations and their solutions imply relying on their capabilities and their ability to find real solutions instead of applying answers based on theoretical knowledge. (2) Teamwork enriches the learning experience and encourages and develops the participants' competences. (3) The participation of an entrepreneur in the training activities is very appreciated and adds an incentive. Overall, all these items have already been noted by Fayolle [21] who after a thorough revision of literature highlights the importance of active, experiential, learning by doing real-world pedagogies. This principle ensures that training of competences is successful. In this way, this study answers the second research question and deepens the nature of the interventions: methods, content, resources, organisation of the groups, time and space.

Last but not least, OI was appreciated, even the lecturers considered it a chance to engage the students and improve the level of participation in their lessons. This statement responds positively to the third research question raised. Moreover, it has a beneficial impact on the modernization of university image and receptiveness of higher education. In Sharples et al. [27], considerations in this line are made.

The role of competences in the so-called European Higher Education Area (EHEA) derived from Bologna Process' decade anniversary seems not to be under discussion, even though several challenges remain unresolved regarding how and which pedagogical instruments develop employability efficiently [16,91]. This study is innovative as its aim is to test which training tools have a greater

influence on entrepreneurial competences. Moreover, how this set of skills is perceived as valuable for the labour market. The feeling of students and lecturers and personal impressions regarding which educational and didactical methods work are necessary. This approach is not usual [22] and its introduction is the most highlighted contribution.

The findings may suggest that student involvement in discussion and evaluation of tools to train entrepreneurial competences may enhance motivation and learning outcomes. This requirement is made in previous literature as well [4,6,10,64]. As for lecturers, they point out that OI helps them to achieve a positive attitude towards learning in lessons and they acknowledge they are more motivated thanks to the better performance seen in student competences. Consequently, the main finding is that students' involvement in the decision-making process regarding tools to train entrepreneurial competences through the OI approach has a positive and direct effect on student motivation and their learning and professional outcomes. In this way, this research work agrees with Fayolle [21] (p. 700), who highlights that entrepreneurial learning and entrepreneurial outcomes should adequately meet the social and economic needs of all the stakeholders involved and to achieve it, the creation of a community sharing the same values and objectives is key.

The university can take advantage of providing a platform where entrepreneurs can connect with lecturers and students in order to test which knowledge and competences are more in demand by companies. This could support the design and implementation of innovative methods. The co-creation channels reinforce the social commitment in higher education, and it would be to the benefit of all parties (university, students and productive sector). Working with this philosophy, the essential elements of a practical model which optimizes the value of the collaborative innovation between the educational institutions (or agents) and the interest groups can be established in the same way as Cai [66]. To sum up, OI practices in the educational environment allow an accurate adjustment of objectives and results due to the active role of stakeholders in their strategy.

Therefore, some considerations highlighting the contribution are made. Given the length of time, entrepreneurial learning cannot be considered a new or even emerging field of study, but rather one that has been established and has been organized in different research areas and topics [64]. The TPB model [47] is widely used for measuring entrepreneurial intention but competences and the influence of different training activities are added in this study [10]. Consequently, this research work reveals how entrepreneurial intention and self-perception about competence profile can change depending on the methodological, pedagogical approaches used in the learning process. Moreover, the collaborative model, specifically, OI practices clearly show better performance and engagement in the educational environment. This research paper contributes to providing evidence that the learning perspective and widening the interpretative framework of entrepreneurial learning to foster entrepreneurial development in a transversal competence are not only linked to business setup, but also employability is positively improved.
