*3.2. The Role of Olfaction in Neophobia*

Neophobic children tend to selectively avoid fruit and vegetables [64]. It has been shown [65] that children develop high sensitivity to taste, and bitterness in particular has been negatively correlated with the amount and variety of consumed fruits and vegetables. Researchers believe that even in adults, the sense that is most strongly involved in the development of neophobia is smell [66].

Some studies have shown that people with food neophobia are less able than the general population to perceive odors (whether related to food or not) as pleasant and intense. They also seem to be less willing and interested in tasting new foods and much more uncertain about identifying unknown foods [67,68]. In addition, neophobic eaters generally expect new foods to be less palatable than familiar ones [69].

#### *3.3. Neophobia and Attitude towards New Foods*

Can the neophobia construct effectively explain resistance to new foods? Some research data indicates that the relationship between the two is problematic. For example, it has been shown that neophobia does not impact the choice of genetically modified products, or the choice of organic food [70], while it seems to be a negative predictor of willingness to taste non-traditional ethnic foods [71,72] and functional foods, i.e., foods that provide additional health benefits [73,74]. Two other studies found that higher levels of neophobia correlate with less willingness to eat healthy food (vegetables and fruit) in children [75] and in adolescents [76]. The question thus arises as to whether the resistance to accepting new foods is linked to certain food groups and not to newness as such. In other words, since resistance is shown towards fruit and vegetables in particular, it may not impact choices involving new foods. Rather, it may affect food categories that people are already used to eating, such as flour-based or highly processed foods. This contrasts with the findings of the survey conducted by Elorinne [77], which indicated that products of non-animal (i.e., vegetable) origin trigger lower levels of food neophobia than animal-based products. Food neophobia seems to be an extremely complex attitude. Its intensity tends to fluctuate during the life-span and is mediated by several variables [68,78,79]. As for its association with other psychological variables, it correlates with lower scores for sensation seeking [78] and trait anxiety [59], and is negatively correlated with openness to experience [80]. However, little is known about what contributes in the early stages to making a person neophobic, and what factors tend to maintain avoidance over time.

#### *3.4. What Do Neophobia Scores Actually Measure?*

Food neophobia is generally investigated using the Food Neophobia Scale (FNS) [81], which has been revised and adapted over the years [63] and translated into various languages. There is also a version for children adapted by Pliner [82]. This instrument investigates the degree of agreement or disagreement with items relating to the consumption of new foods or their avoidance. Specifically, it refers to the willingness to taste new, ethnic or unusual foods. However, it does not investigate the attitude, the emotional reaction and above all the conscious intentions or the reasons for choosing to avoid a food [83]. The FNS, however, is not the only instrument used to investigate unwillingness to try unfamiliar food. In their review, Damsbo-Svendsen [83] presented a qualitative and quantitative comparison of 13 different tools. They recommend that the researcher take great care in choosing the most appropriate instrument: "no instrument is suitable for measuring all aspects of neophobia" (p. 366). Each available instrument explores a different aspect, such as the attitude toward specific food categories (fruit and vegetables) or food situations, or foods produced with new technology. However, for some subcategories of novel food—such as genetically modified and functional foods —the relationship between the consumer's attitude and food neophobia may not be straightforward [67]. Furthermore, less conventional food choices, such as a vegan diet, can also result in high neophobia scores, as Elorinne's survey found [77]; this does not shed light on the reasoning behind the type of choice. The construct thus appears to be poorly defined, as it is very elastic and could encompass food philosophies that are very distant from each other. It would not be unreasonable to hypothesize that it refers more to choices relating to ethnic foods than to willingness to try unfamiliar foods. It should also be borne in mind that the philosophy of "short food supply chains" and locavorism could translate into resistance to new foods. Where such ethical-social considerations are the basic criterion for choosing

certain specific food products over others, taking them into account would make it possible to predict consumer behavior more accurately. We also believe that the term "novel food" requires clarification. "Novel" can mean many things: (1) new compared to traditional cuisine, and thus exotic or ethnic food, (2) new compared to what the individual habitually eats, (3) new in the sense of being offered by a different brand, so that the individual tends to eat foods that are similar in their basic ingredients, but produced by other suppliers. Future research should also consider other variables that may play a role in explaining food conduct: it would be important to have a broader conceptualization of the implicit and explicit theories that lead people to engage in certain food behaviors rather than others. This would provide the agri-food industry with guidance regarding the product characteristics that can attract consumers, including those belonging to specific categories such as vegans, etc.
