*4.1. Load Modeling*

A bottom-up approach is adopted for the simulation test case. The residential loads are classified into seven categories: base load, EV, PV, heat pump, washing machine, dishwasher and refrigerator. The base load is considered to be comprised of the non-controllable devices. The required EV charge is modeled based on the driving distance, arrival and departure time [36]. The charging rate is assumed to range between 3 and 8 kW. For the PV, the rated power varies between 2 and 5.5 kW per household. The heat pumps have a rated power of 0.7 kW to 2 kW, with an additional 2 kW resistive heating element. The washing machine, dishwasher and refrigerator have a rated power in the range of 0.6–2 kW, 0.5–1.11 kW and 0.035–0.140 kW, respectively. For more information about the loads, the reader is referred to [6]. A flat network tariff of EUR 0.06 is considered for *pDSO* [37]. The network tariff is adjusted in such a way so that the daily average is kept fixed at EUR 0.06.

## *4.2. Network*

A modified version of the IEEE European LV test network is used for the case study [38]. The network hosts 55 households with single phase connections. A 250 kVA, 11 kV/0.416 kV transformer supplies the LV segment from the MV bus. The resistance and reactance of the windings are 0.4% and 4% of the base values at the MV side, respectively. An additional LV feeder with an aggregated peak load of 100 kW is assumed at the substation. A constant power factor of 0.95 is used

for the power flow calculation. Per unit values in the results are calculated considering the transformer rating as the base value.
