**1. Introduction**

At present, the problem of air pollution caused by inefficient heat sources has become one of the most important urban problems of Central and Eastern Europe. On the macro scale, air pollution resulting from the use of fossil fuels for heating is extremely harmful to the Earth's climate due to greenhouse gas emissions, while on the local and the regional scale, it has a direct, negative impact on human health (e.g., PM2.5 and PM10 pollution) [1–3]. Particulates, due to their dimensions, can be transported over considerable distances even by weak winds. It was found that solid particles (0.1–1 μm) can be transported over a distance of up to several thousand kilometres [4]. The latest research [5] shows that a significant amount of PM10 emitted in Silesia can be transported several hundred kilometres to eastern or northern Poland, and even to Scandinavia. Air pollution emitted in this area of Poland can be considered an external source of air pollution, affecting, among others, the eastern regions of the Czech Republic [6]. Poland, along with Bulgaria, is one of the countries with the highest levels of PM10 air pollution (above 50 μg/m3) in Europe [7–9]. Both high-altitude and low-altitude emissions have a significant impact on measurable and perceptible air quality in living areas [10–15]. Emissions at an altitude of 40 m above ground level are considered to be high altitude emissions. Low altitude emissions include all sources of particle pollution up to a height of 40 m. In Poland, the primary sources of low altitude emissions are domestic furnaces and boilers, with road transport also being a significant but smaller contributor.

Particle pollution caused by fine and coarse particulates (PM2.5 and PM10, respectively) is presently one of the most important scientific problems [16]. PM2.5 is particulate matter that consists of particles smaller than 2.5 μm in diameter, while PM10 is composed of particles that range between 2.5 μm

and 10 μm in diameter. Both types are extremely dangerous. Inhaling harmful substances can lead to various respiratory and cardiovascular disorders [17]. Epidemiological studies confirm that permanent exposure to PM2.5 significantly contributes to a higher incidence of cardiopulmonary disease and complications that can lead to increased mortality rates [18,19]. Therefore, a better and more comprehensive understanding of all conditions related to PM2.5 and PM10 pollution is necessary. This can significantly contribute to preventing air pollution and protecting human health. A substantial amount of research has been conducted on PM2.5 and PM10 pollution around the world. The main areas of focus include spatial issues and the time of occurrence of pollution [5–10], particle pollution sources [20–23], effects on human health [24–27] and estimation studies [28–31].

Studies have shown that on the macro scale, meteorological conditions affect PM2.5 and PM10 levels [32–35]; on the micro scale, PM2.5 pollution is strongly associated with land use [36–39]. Some researchers suggest that land use can be optimised to reduce PM2.5 and PM10 levels on an urban level [40–42]. However, there is a noticeable lack of research into the link between spatial development, urban composition and topography in the context of PM2.5 and PM10 emissions [37,43]. Therefore, the author made an attempt to determine the impact of land use on PM2.5 and PM10 pollution levels and to present pollutant distribution across different functional and spatial zones. This can be considered necessary and significant even in the case of Radzionków, a city located in southern Poland, which has very distinct climatic, topographic and spatial conditions.

There is insufficient available data to carry out research of land use impact on the degree of PM2.5 and PM10 pollution, which is a major challenge. Several attempts to study this subject have been made during the current decade. Pollutant concentrations should be interpolated using dense monitoring grids, while in reality, monitoring sites are usually rare and sparsely placed, with less than ten locations in large cities, while in small towns there is often only one. Dispersion models that simulate pollutant behaviour may be useful in some cases, but their dependence on many spatial variables requires very accurate input data [44,45].

In Poland, energy and climate policy, particularly concerning air pollution prevention, has been steadily increasing in prominence in public debates, political decisions and academic research. However, it is more commonly associated with problems of the mining and energy sector rather than the problems of the direct pollution of urban areas. Popular opinion among Polish citizens holds that the air in small-town and rural areas is cleaner and healthier than in large cities and metropolises. However, scientific publications in this field prove that the situation is quite the opposite—air quality in small towns and rural areas is often observed to be much poorer [46–49]. The problem of air pollution in small urbanised areas in Poland is largely connected with the use of conventional, old and inefficient energy carriers and central heating systems [50]. The effects of using low-calorie coal include the emission of harmful compounds into the atmosphere. These compounds include sulphur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen oxides (NOx), carbon oxides (COx) and harmful particulates. Particulates with a diameter below 10 μm, including PM2.5 and PM10, are considered to be the most harmful [51]. Direct inhalation of particulates (PM2.5) is associated with an increased incidence of cardiovascular disease [52]. These particulates often include other impurities such as arsenic, cadmium, nickel and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, which are considered mutagenic, such as benzo(a)pyrene, as well as substances that contribute to carcinogenicity. They are also one of the most dangerous air pollutants [53,54]. The burning of conventional energy carriers such as hard coal contributes to the degradation of the natural environment via the greenhouse effect and water and soil pollution. In Polish small towns and rural areas, the problem is additionally compounded by obsolete power grids.

Gas distribution grids are also poorly developed and are absent in many areas. The quality of the living environment depends on many factors [55]. It is largely determined by a location's existing spatial conditions. The topography and development spatial structure of an area can be considered significant when analysing air quality and pollution. Many reports on the living environment do not take spatial factors into account, as they focus solely on pollution statistics [56–58]. In this study, the author, taking into account site-specific variables, shows differences in air pollution measurements for designated locations relative to the morphological structure of their development. The study aimed at answering two fundamental questions.

