**7. Conclusions**

This study was one of the first to examine the association between being bystanders and being perpetrators of online hate. It was also one of the first to investigate the moderating effect of toxic online disinhibition in this relationship. Findings indicate that increases in being bystanders of online hate and toxic online disinhibition were positively associated with being an online hate perpetrator, while controlling for participants' age, sex, migration background, socioeconomic status, and experience of online hate victimization. Moreover, a significant interaction was found between being bystanders of online hate and toxic online disinhibition when predicting online hate perpetration. The findings of the present study indicate a need for school staff, policy makers, and providers of social media to be aware of the possible impact that witnessing online hate and online disinhibition can have on adolescents' behavior. In addition, the identification of correlates, such as toxic online disinhibition, could help with the development of prevention and intervention programs aimed at changing adolescents' online behavior.

**Author Contributions:** S.W. and M.F.W. developed the study design. S.W. performed the statistical analyses and drafted the manuscript. M.F.W. provided feedback on drafts of the manuscript. S.W. processed all feedback from the coauthor and reviewers. Both authors read and approved of the final manuscript.

**Funding:** We acknowledge the support of the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft and Open Access Publishing Fund of University of Potsdam.

**Conflicts of Interest:** The authors declare no conflict of interest.
