*2.3. Ureteral Strictures*

A ureteral stricture is a narrowing of the ureter that causes an obstruction. Strictures cause significant morbidity and mortality from renal failure. Benign strictures are typically caused by ischemia or inflammation. Causes include radiation, trauma associated with calculus impaction, pelvic surgery, and ureteroscopy [7]. Moderate to severe strictures require surgical intervention, such as balloon dilation, endoureterotomy, or stricture resection.
