**3. Concluding Remarks**

In conclusion, the protein-bound uremic toxins IS and PCS are considered to be harmful vascular toxins. Their vascular toxicity is associated with the upregulation of inflammation, coagulation, and oxidative stress pathways. Moreover, hyperglycemia seems to be an important player in these events. On the other hand, escape from IS/PCS-induced arterial media calcification was linked to activation of lipid metabolism. This suggests that the balance in glucose versus lipid metabolism could be crucial in uremic-toxin-induced vascular calcification.

**Author Contributions:** Drafted and revised the manuscript, B.O.; Revised the manuscript, P.C.D. and A.V. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

**Funding:** This research was funded by the Fund of Scientific Research-Flanders (FWO) gran<sup>t</sup> number 1S22217N. The APC was funded by Laboratory of Pathophysiology.

**Conflicts of Interest:** The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
