*2.3. Data Analysis*

The collected data were analyzed using SPSS (IBM SPSS Statistics 26.0, Chicago, IL, USA) and structural equation modeling (SEM), which was carried out using SPSS AMOS 26 software [76]. Three sets of analyses were conducted. First, to test the gender and academic-year differences, we conducted two independent-sample *t*-tests with five dependent variables: acculturative stress, SOC, active coping, avoidant coping, and depressive symptoms. The second hypothesis was tested using Pearson correlations, which involved acculturative stress, depression, SOC, and coping strategies. We used SEM to test the direct and direct effects of acculturative stress on depressive symptoms via SOC and coping strategies among female and male Arab students, as well as among Year 1 + 2 and Year 3 + 4 Arab students.

#### **3. Results**

#### *3.1. The Study Population*

One hundred seventy individuals participated in the study, 103 female Arab students and 67 male Arab students. The participants' had a mean age of 21.88 years (*SD* = 2.54). The majority of the students were single and the children of parents who had 12 or fewer years of education (82.4%). A complete description of the demographic characteristics of the study population is presented in Table 1.


**Table 1.** Frequencies and percentages of demographic variables.

#### *3.2. Gender Di*ff*erences in Levels of Acculturative Stress, SOC, Coping Strategies, and Depression*

Our first hypothesis was that gender differences would be related to levels of acculturative stress, coping strategies, and depression. To test that hypothesis, we conducted independent-sample *t*-tests with five dependent variables (i.e., acculturative stress, SOC, active coping, avoidant coping, and depressive symptoms). This analysis revealed significant gender differences in the use of active and avoidant coping strategies, as well as depressive symptoms. In addition, non-significant gender differences were found in the levels of acculturative stress and SOC.

As shown in Table 2, female Arab students reported higher levels of avoidant coping, active coping, and depressive symptoms, as compared to male students. Concerning depressive symptoms, forty-five (44%) of the female participants had mean CES-D scores that exceeded the stricter diagnostic cut-off point of 23. In contrast, 22 (33%) of the male participants had CES-D scores above the stricter diagnostic cut-off point.


**Table 2.** Gender differences in acculturative stress, SOC, active coping, avoidant coping, and depressive symptoms.

\* *p* < 0.05; \*\* *p* < 0.01; SOC, sense of coherence.

#### *3.3. Academic-Year Di*ff*erences in Levels of Acculturative Stress, SOC, Coping Strategies, and Depression*

Our second hypothesis was that academic year differences would be related to levels of acculturative stress and depression. To test that hypothesis, we conducted independent-sample *t*-tests with five dependent variables (i.e., acculturative stress, SOC, active coping, avoidant coping, and depressive symptoms). This analysis revealed significant academic year differences only in depressive symptoms. In addition, non-significant gender differences were found in the levels of acculturative stress. As shown in Table 3, Year 1 + 2 Arab students reported higher levels of depressive symptoms as compared to Year 3 + 4 students.

**Table 3.** Academic-year differences in acculturative stress, SOC, active coping, avoidant coping, and depressive symptoms.


\* *p* < 0.05; SOC, sense of coherence.

#### *3.4. Relationships Between the Study Variables Among the Students*

We computed Pearson's correlations between the study variables. As shown in Table 4, a positive association was found between acculturative stress and depressive symptoms. In addition, avoidant coping was found to be positively associated with acculturative stress. In other words, higher levels of acculturative stress were related to both greater use of avoidant coping strategies and more depressive symptoms. In addition, negative associations were found between acculturative stress and SOC and active coping. Higher levels of acculturative stress were related to lower levels of SOC and less use of active coping strategies among Arab students.


**Table 4.** Pearson's correlations between the study variables.

\* *p* < 0.05; \*\* *p* < 0.01; \*\*\* *p* < 0.001; SOC, sense of coherence.

#### *3.5. Direct and Indirect Relationships between Acculturative Stress and Depression among Male and Female Arab Students*

Multiple-group SEM analysis was performed with SPSS AMOS software [76], using the maximumlikelihood estimation to test how well the data fit the hypothesized model. AMOS generates a variety of indices for evaluating fit; models with chi-square/degrees of freedom ratios of less than two considered acceptable. We also employed the non-normed fit index (NNFI) [77], the Tucker–Lewis index (TLI), the comparative fit index (CFI) [78], and the root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA). Index values between 0.00 and 0.08 are generally deemed acceptable [79]. The fit indices of the hypothesized model were as follows: CFI = 0.99, NNFI = 0.91, RMSEA = 0.07, CMIN/*df* = 1.83, and *p* < 0.05. Thus, the hypothesized model fit the data well.

The full models explained 48% and 56% of the variance of depressive symptoms among female and male students, respectively. All of the coefficients reported in the text and in Figure 2 are standardized. As shown in Figure 2, among the female participants, acculturative stress had a significant direct effect (β = 0.15) and an indirect effect (β = 0.20) on depressive symptoms via SOC and avoidant coping. However, among the male participants, we observed a stronger indirect effect of acculturative stress on depression (β = 0.40) via SOC and active coping. Among the men, we did not find any significant direct effect of acculturative stress on depressive symptoms (β = 0.13).

**Figure 2.** Direct and indirect effects of acculturative stress on depressive symptoms through SOC, avoidant coping, and active coping among: (**a**) female Arab students; and (**b**) male Arab students. *Note.* All of the coefficients in the figures are standardized. \* *p* < 0.05; \*\* *p* < 0.01; \*\*\* *p* < 0.001; SOC, sense of coherence.

Among the women, acculturative stress had significant direct effects on SOC (β = −0.29) and avoidant coping (β = 0.20). Moreover, we observed significant direct effects of SOC (β = −0.48) and avoidant coping (β = 0.25) on depressive symptoms. In comparison, among the men, acculturative stress had strong direct effects on SOC (β = −0.50) and active coping (β = −0.47). We also observed significant direct effects of SOC (β = −0.48) and active coping (β = −0.26) on depressive symptoms among the men. The results from this analysis underscore the significance of the indirect effect of acculturative stress on depressive symptoms through SOC and coping strategies among female and male Arab students. However, our results support the direct effect of acculturative stress on depression among female students, but not among male students.
