*3.6. Direct and Indirect Relationships between Acculturative Stress and Depression among Year 1* + *2 and Year 3* + *4 Arab Students*

Multiple-group SEM analysis was performed with SPSS AMOS software to compare the effects of the different variables on depressive symptoms in the two groups of Year 1 + 2 and Year 3 + 4 Arab Students. The fit indices of the hypothesized model were as follows: CFI = 0.98, NNFI = 0.93, RMSEA = 0.08, CMIN/*df* = 1.94, and *p* < 0.05. Thus, the hypothesized model fit the data well.

The full models explained 45% and 53% of the variance of depressive symptoms among Year 1 + 2 students and Year 3 + 4 students, respectively. All of the coefficients reported in the text and in Figure 2 are standardized. As shown in Figure 3, among the Year 1 + 2 participants, acculturative stress had an indirect effect (β = 0.27) on depressive symptoms via SOC and avoidant coping. However, among the Year 3 + 4 participants, we observed a direct effect of acculturative stress on depression (β = 0.23) and an indirect effect of acculturative stress on depression (β = 0.22) via SOC. Among the Year 1 + 2 students, we did not find any significant direct effect of acculturative stress on depressive symptoms (β = 0.11).

**Figure 3.** Direct and indirect effects of acculturative stress on depressive symptoms through SOC, avoidant coping, and active coping among: (**a**) Year 1 + 2 Arab students; and (**b**) Year 3 + 4 Arab students. *Note*. All of the coefficients in the figures are standardized. \* *p* < 0.05; \*\* *p* < 0.01; \*\*\* *p* < 0.001; SOC, sense of coherence.

Among the Year 1 + 2 students, acculturative stress had significant direct effects on SOC (β = −0.33) and avoidant coping (β = 0.26). Moreover, we observed significant direct effects of SOC (β = −0.46), active coping (β = −0.19), and avoidant coping (β = 0.29) on depressive symptoms among those students. In comparison, among the Year 3 + 4 students, acculturative stress had strong direct effects on SOC (β = −0.44) and active coping (β = −0.24). We also observed significant direct effects of SOC (β = −0.42) and avoidant coping (β = 0.21) on depressive symptoms among the Year 3 + 4 students.

The results of these analyses underscore the significance of the indirect effect of acculturative stress on depressive symptoms, through SOC and avoidant-coping strategies, among Year 1 + 2 Arab students. However, our results support the direct effect and the indirect effect of acculturative stress on depressive symptoms through SOC only among Year 3 + 4 Arab students.

An examination of the total (direct and indirect) effects of acculturative stress revealed a meaningful picture. Among the female participants, acculturative stress affected depressive symptoms directly and indirectly through SOC and avoidant coping. However, among Arab male participants, acculturative stress affected depressive symptoms only indirectly, through SOC and active coping. Moreover, among Year 1 + 2 students, acculturative stress was related to depressive symptoms indirectly via SOC and avoidant coping. However, among the Year 3 + 4 students, acculturative stress was related to depressive symptoms both directly and indirectly via SOC.

#### **4. Discussion**

The main aim of this study was to examine the association between acculturative stress and depressive symptoms. We were interested in exploring the roles of SOC and avoidant and active coping strategies in this relationship among male and female Arab college students from northern and central Israel who are at different stages of their studies in Israeli institutions of higher education. Important findings emerged from this study. Gender differences were found in both active and avoidant coping, as well as in depressive symptoms. Academic-year differences were found in SOC and depressive symptoms. In addition, higher levels of acculturative stress were found to be related to lower levels of SOC, less use of active coping, more use of avoidant coping, and higher levels of depressive symptoms. Among the female Arab students, acculturative stress affected depressive symptoms both directly and indirectly through SOC and avoidant coping. However, among Arab males, acculturative stress only affected depressive symptoms indirectly, through SOC and active coping. Among Year 1 + 2 students, acculturative stress affected depressive symptoms indirectly via SOC and avoidant coping. However, among the Year 3 + 4 students, acculturative stress affected depressive symptoms both directly and indirectly via SOC.

### *4.1. Gender Di*ff*erences in Coping Strategies*

Gender differences were found in both active and avoidant coping, with females scoring higher in both active and avoidant coping than their male counterparts. This is consistent with previous literature that has noted that coping mechanisms may be gender-specific [80] and that females tend to face higher levels of stress, which are associated with the use of more coping resources [66]. Abu-Kaf and Braun-Lewensohn [42] confirmed that female Bedouin Arab students report greater use of both active coping and avoidant coping, as compared to male Bedouin Arab students. Bedouin Arab females reported using a variety of coping strategies as they confront problems/stressors (i.e., social support, emotional regulation, affective release, and emotion-focused strategies). They also attempt to reduce tension by avoiding dealing with problems (i.e., behavioral disengagement, self-distraction, denial, and self-blame). This finding may be related to the understanding that females suffer disproportionately from life stressors. Understanding that difference is essential for the discussion of gender differences in personal methods of coping and efforts to overcome stressful situations [3]. In other words, the greater number of life stressors that Arab females experience may be associated with the use of more coping mechanisms, whether avoidant or active [66].

#### *4.2. Gender Di*ff*erences in Depressive Symptoms*

In terms of depressive symptoms, the current study revealed a higher monthly prevalence rate, as well as higher scores (mean) among female Arab students, as compared to male Arab students. These finding provide more support for previous research, which found gender differences in depression. For example, women are twice as likely as men to have higher scores on self-reported measures of depressive symptoms [49]. It is important to mention that mean depression scores and the monthly prevalence rate among male Arab students were higher than those usually observed among male and female student samples in Israel. Previous research found that the reported rates of severe levels of depressive symptoms range from 12.5% to 16.7% among male Jewish students and range from 15.1% to 17% among Jewish female students [50]. In the current study, about one-third of the Arab male students

scored above the stricter diagnostic cut-off point of 23, indicating severe levels of depressive symptoms. Mental-health problems have been found to be more prevalent among Arab students, particularly among female Arab students [42,81]. Depressive symptoms among students have been found to affect learning and memory processes, leading to lower levels of academic achievement [82], poor attendance, failure to complete the academic degree [83], dropping out of the academic institution [84], and even suicidal ideation [85].

#### *4.3. Academic-Year Di*ff*erences in Depressive Symptoms*

Our results revealed differences in depressive symptoms among Year 1 + 2 students as compared to Year 3 + 4 students. Year 1 + 2 students reported higher levels of depressive symptoms than Year 3 + 4 students. This finding supports previous research which addressed the vulnerability of students in the earlier years of their college educations to psychological distress, specifically depressive symptoms [51]. Previous studies have demonstrated that the period of transition from high school to college is very stressful for many students, in general, and for student from cultural-ethnic minority groups, in particular [50,62].

#### *4.4. Academic-Year Di*ff*erences in SOC*

Another interesting finding is related to the higher levels of SOC observed among Year 3 + 4 students, as compared to Year 1 + 2 students. This finding does not support the findings of a previous study that found no academic-year differences in SOC among Chinese nursing students in Australia. Our finding may be explained by the fact that more advanced Arab students have more experience, greater knowledge about the academic environment, and larger social networks on campus than students who are in the earlier stages of their education [86]. This may affect their perception of college life and the academic environment as structured and predictable, as well as increase their capacity to assess and use available resources to face and cope with stressful situations [21].

#### *4.5. Associations Between Acculturative Stress and Depressive Symptoms*

Our findings revealed that acculturative stress is positively related to depressive symptoms. This finding supports previous research that has found acculturative stress to be associated with mental-health problems, including anxiety and depression [2,10–12]. Among college students (international students and students from a cultural-ethnic minority), acculturative stress has been associated with a number of psychological challenges, including depression [13,14]. This finding may be related to the associations that have been found between acculturative stress and feelings of alienation, being discriminated against, and feeling that one does not belong, which may contribute to feelings of disconnection and depression [87].
