2.2.1. Acculturative Stress—Societal, Attitudinal, Familial, and Environmental—Revised–Short Form (SAFE-Short)

This 24-item measure is designed to assess negative stressors experienced by minority individuals. It captures both stress experienced within one's own group and stress experienced when engaging with the mainstream culture [7]. The items are statements that describe situations that may cause stress (e.g., "It bothers me that I cannot be with my family." and "My family members and I have different expectations about my future.") The items are rated on a Likert scale of 1–5 (1 = not stressful; 2 = somewhat stressful; 3 = stressful; 4 = very stressful; 5 = extremely stressful). The mean score of the scale ranged from 1 to 5. This scale has been found to be reliable across different ethnic and cultural groups [69]. In the current study, the internal consistency coefficient of the scale was 0.88.

#### 2.2.2. Sense of Coherence (SOC) Questionnaire

This questionnaire consists of 13 items that measure a respondent's perception of life as comprehensible, manageable, and meaningful [18]. The items were rated using a 7-point Likert scale that had an anchoring phrase at each end. High scores indicated a strong SOC. The scale included such items as "Doing the things you do every day is" with answers ranging from 1 (a source of pain and boredom) to 7 (a source of deep pleasure and satisfaction). The mean score of the scale ranged from 1 to 7. In this study, we used the Arabic version of the SOC questionnaire. This version has been used in several previous research projects and has been found to be reliable and suitable for use among the Bedouin Arab population [23,70,71]. In the current study, the internal consistency reliability for the scale was 0.80.

2.2.3. Active and Avoidant Coping—The Coping Orientations to Problems Experienced Inventory (COPE)

The COPE-Short Form is a 28-item questionnaire used to assess different dimensions of active or avoidant coping strategies [72]. Participants rate each coping statement in terms of how frequently they use each strategy to manage stressful events, on a scale of 1 (never) to 5 (always). The subscales were aggregated to form two composite scales: active coping (14 items related to planning, instrumental support, emotional support, positive reframing, problem-solving, and humor) and avoidant coping (14 items related to self-blame, behavioral disengagement, self-distraction, substance use, and denial). Coping statements include items such as "I spent more time alone"; "I blamed myself"; "I tried to forget

the whole thing"; "I've been getting emotional support from others"; and "I've been getting comfort from someone." The mean scores of the active-coping and avoidant-coping strategy subscales ranged from 1 to 5. In the current study, the Arabic version of the instrument [73] was used. The internal consistency coefficients of the active and avoidant coping scales of the instrument were 0.83 and 0.71, respectively.
