3.2.2. Individual Physical and Mental Health

The relationship between SOC and nurses' health was the focus of several studies. Miyata et at. associated positively SOC with good mental health status and good physical health status [9].

Schäfer et al. observed a significant increase from the cut-off value of nurses' scores in ICD-10-Symptoms Rating (ISR), evaluating general health problems, as well as symptoms burden, depression and eating disorder symptoms. Moreover, when compared to physicians, nurses reported higher ISR and symptoms burden scores, the same was not found for variables such as Resilience, SOC or LOC (Locus of Control). Furthermore, SOC, Resilience, and Internal and External LOC correlated with ISR scores and Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) symptoms, correlating SOC as a significant predictor of mental health problems and of symptom severity [30].

An inverse correlation was found between health risk and SOC, the latter significantly affecting sickness-absences, especially for experienced and expert nurses, for whom it is the only casual factor, among the other investigated variables [14].

Depression and SOC have been found to negatively, and strongly, correlate in several studies [11, 26,28,31]. Takeuchi et al. also considered the interaction of SOC and work-family conflicts (WFC) on the degree of nurses' depression and pointed out the buffering effect of SOC against depression, resulting from WFC [31].

Moreover, an inverse correlation was found between SOC and personal stress [22] and cumulative fatigue [31].

#### 3.2.3. Personality Traits and Characteristics

Van der Colff et al. showed that SOC was correlated positively with different coping strategies, evaluated through the Coping Orientation for Problem Experienced (COPE) questionnaire, namely Approach Coping (seeking emotional/social support) and Turning to Religion; the correlation was inverse for Avoidance and Focus on and ventilation of emotions [15].

Overall a higher SOC score was associated with stronger total coping resources [22], thriving and the use of GRRs [1] and greater self-motivation, measured by the Self-Motivation Inventory (SMI) [32].

SOC was positively related to perceived progress goal as well as perceived control, both related to the perception of characteristic tasks of the job and life activities in which nurses were involved, evaluated upon interruption signals. Such signals were found to have a lower positive affect and higher negative affect in nurses with lower SOC [33].

Few studies concentrated on the relationship between SOC and personality traits. Kikuchi et al. revealed that SOC had a strong correlation with almost all personality traits, the strongest being the one with Neuroticism [11]. Höge et al. underlined the same concordant relationship between SOC and Negative Affectivity [20]. Similarly, SOC was found to correlate to the Karolinska Scale of Personality (KSP): negatively to Impulsiveness, Monotony Avoidance, Detachment, Hostility and Psychasthenia, and positively to Socialization and Empathy [23].

The KSP variable "Somatic Anxiety" was inversely related to SOC [23], but in contrast, no differences in mean SOC between the Anxiety (+) and the Anxiety (−) groups were found by Yoshida et al. [34].

#### 3.2.4. Negative Life Events

In two different studies Hochwälder et al. investigated the association of negative life events on nurses' SOC [29,35]. There was no strong evidence that negative life events lower SOC in the sample population, but those who experienced a negative life event had initially a weaker SOC, compared to those who did not experience any negative life events [35]. Although there was not a significant correlation between SOC and the number of uncontrolled negative life events, those with high and moderate SOC reported fewer controllable negative life events compared to individuals with low SOC [29].
