**5. Conclusions**

We attempted to identify factors a ffecting the degree of P-I of CC on farm yield among rice farmers in Indonesia. The P-I is a subjective measure of the impact of CC on farm yield. This subjective nature of P-I is essential because it indicates how farmers will adapt to CC. The more severe the P-I of CC, the more likely farmers are to adopt adaptation practices. In general, the results seem to support the findings of previous empirical studies and that little di fference exists between the actual and perceived impact of CC. Higher education, secure land tenure, the existence of irrigation infrastructure, and access to extension services decrease the degree of the P-I of CC. Previous empirical studies showed that these variables improve how likely a farmer is to adopt CC adaptation practices. Since farmers with a high value for these variables are likely to undertake adaptation practices, we conclude that adaptation limits the adverse e ffects of CC on farm yield. Hence, the farmer perceives a lower impact of CC.

However, since we measured the perceived impact of CC on farm yield, the existence of maladaptation is suggested. A farmer's primary objective is to retain their yield level, and it is likely that adaptations are primarily aimed to limit yield loss. Consequently, such adaptation potentially creates maladaptive outcomes. In Section 4.2.3, the application of chemical fertilizer was found to decrease the degree of P-I. This suggests that farmers might use excessive chemical fertilizer (inputs) to reduce yield loss. This excessive use will pollute nearby water bodies and decrease soil quality.

Finally, the information obtained from this study is nationally representative and is relevant for the National Adaptation Policy in Indonesia. However, the current study is limited in providing

the details of adaptation practices (the type and form of adaptation) in which farmers engage. Thus, additional study that captures the detailed conditions and practices of Indonesian rice farming is crucial in supporting the information in this study.

Thus, our results provide a basis for future research directions:


**Author Contributions:** Conceptualization: M.R., A.K., Y.M. and T.K.; formal analysis: M.R., A.K. and Y.M.; funding acquisition: T.K.; investigation: Y.M.; resources: Y.M. and T.K.; software: M.R. and A.K.; supervision: M.R. and T.K.; visualization: M.R. and A.K.; writing—original draft: M.R. and A.K.; writing—review & editing: M.R.

**Funding:** This research was funded by the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science, Grant Number: 18K05839.

**Conflicts of Interest:** The authors declare no conflict of interest.
