3.1.1. WTT Stage

In the WTT stage, terminal fuels are produced after primary energy acquisition and processing, transportation, power generation, transmission and distribution. As shown in Table 6, energy consumption and GHG emissions from gasoline and electricity production in China are calculated. The energy conversion efficiency of gasoline is about 88.4% while the calculated energy conversion efficiency of electricity is about 43.3%. Fossil energy consumption accounts for 86.31% of the total energy consumption in electricity production and is dominated by coal consumption. The calculated results are similar to previous studies [35]. Notably, the electricity used to power BEVs comes from a more energy and emission intensive source than gasoline in China. The production of 1 MJ electricity is 2.04 times higher energy demand than that of gasoline, along with 9.51 times more GHG emissions.

**Table 6.** The energy and emission intensities of gasoline and electricity production in 2017.


## 3.1.2. TTW Stage

Based on the real-world fuel efficiency of EVs and the Equation (1), the energy required for BEV is 0.648 MJ/km and 0.635 MJ/km for LFP powered and NMC powered vehicles, respectively, whereas the corresponding energy consumption is 1.409 MJ/km and 1.406 MJ/km for PHEVs, that is about 2 times more energy is required for PHEVs to drive the same distance, relative to that of BEVs. In addition, PHEVs emit 113.92 g/km GHG emissions due to the use of gasoline in the TTW stage while no tailpipe emissions are exhausted in this stage for BEVs.
