*3.3. Decrease in Parenting <sup>E</sup>*ffi*cacy*

### 3.3.1. Confusion in the Role of Parents before and after Migration

NK refugees experienced confusion in their parenting roles in the process of migrating to a new society, and they felt frustration around bringing up their kids. According to participant D, whenever their parenting behaviors learned in North Korea were considered a bad parenting style in South Korean society, they felt confused about their role as parents. Excessive interference and criticism form South Korean society reduced their confidence in parenting further. This low parenting e fficacy has caused child abuse.

*"In some cases, the parenting beliefs that I have had from North Korea was considered a child abuse act in South Korean society. It was confusing, so I tried to change the way of raising my kids many times, but it didn't help but just confused my kids too."* [Participant D]
