**5. Conclusions**

In conclusion, shrub encroachment was observed in a temperate savanna-like ecosystem in Northern China, possibly as a result of both grazing and climate change. Shrub encroachment in this area has resulted in changes in the composition and spatial pattern of the original tree-dominated savanna. Due to severe damage to the *U. pumila*-dominated temperate savanna-like ecosystem, especially for woody vegetation, ecological degradation has occurred, such as decreasing temperate savanna-like area, loss of structural integrity, poor population regeneration, and changing spatial patterns. New managemen<sup>t</sup> techniques and climate change mitigation practices should be implemented to replace the older, traditional managemen<sup>t</sup> techniques and to prevent the original tree-dominated temperate savanna-like ecosystem from changing into a shrub-dominated temperate savanna-like ecosystem. A more scientific and e ffective managemen<sup>t</sup> regime should be developed to maintain the stability and sustainability of this typical tree-dominated temperate savanna-like ecosystem currently and in the near future.

**Author Contributions:** Conceptualization, X.W., Z.S. and P.Y.; Methodology, X.Y.; Data Curation, X.W. and L.J.; Formal Analysis, X.W.; Writing—Original Draft Preparation, X.W.; Writing—Review and Editing, X.W. and P.Y; Supervision, Z.S. and Y.L. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

**Funding:** This research was supported by the Special Foundation for National Science and Technology Basic Resource Investigation Program of China (2017FY101301), the National Key Research and Development Program of China (2016YFC0500801; 2016YFC0500804), the National Natural Science Foundation of China (31670715; 41471029; 41701249; 31200350).

**Acknowledgments:** We sincerely thank the local herder's family for providing their rangeland for this research. We also thank Wiegand for his generous provision of spatial analysis software.

**Conflicts of Interest:** The authors declare no conflict of interest.
