2.6.2. PSO Controller

This controller module also had three main functions: the first one was to decide the time of switching, which was the same as the rule-based controller; the second one was to determine the engine speed, which was based on the drive resistance and battery SOC, and the engine torque, which was estimated by the particle swarm algorithm; the third one was the engine state control, which was determined by the PSO controller. The only exception was if the vehicle traveled at very low speed and the engine was turned off—then the rule-based control was used.
