*2.3. Vehicle Dynamic Module*

According to the driving cycle, the vehicle speed was received, and the road load of vehicle model, including rolling resistance, aerodynamic drag, grade resistance, was calculated by Equations (1)–(4). Further, the AHS-II output shaft required torque was obtained. The vehicle parameters are shown in Table 1.

$$F\_{Land} = F\_{\mathcal{I}} + F\_{\mathcal{W}} + F\_{\mathcal{J}'} \tag{1}$$

$$F\_r = f\_r M g \cos \alpha\_\prime \tag{2}$$

$$F\_w = \frac{1}{2} \rho A\_f \mathbb{C}\_D V^2,\tag{3}$$

$$F\_{\mathcal{X}} = M \lg \sin \alpha\_{\prime} \tag{4}$$

where *FLoad*, *Fr*, *Fw,* and *Fg* are vehicle road load, rolling resistance, aerodynamic drag, and grade resistance, respectively, and *fr*, *M*, *g*, α, ρ, *Af*, *CD,* and *V* are rolling resistance coefficient, vehicle mass, gravity, road slope, air density, vehicle front area, aerodynamic drag coefficient, and vehicle speed, respectively.

**Table 1.** Vehicle parameters for dynamic simulation.

