*3.3. Lifecycle Costs*

Lifecycle costs of electric city buses consist of capital, operation and technology replacement costs [1]. Capital costs consist of only the bus purchase cost, as the salvage value at the end of service life is assumed to be zero and the charging device costs are not included. Operation costs include charged electrical energy and maintenance cost. Technology replacement cost is the cost of replacing the battery system after it has reached the end of its useful life. Table 3 describes the lifecycle costs applied in this work.


**Table 3.** Lifecycle cost parameters.

The electricity price is the average price from 28 EU member states for non-household consumers in the first six months of 2019 and includes all taxes and levies [25]. The other cost parameter values, other than the two-speed gearbox, are from the work of Lajunen [1] and Fries et al. [26]. The service life of the bus is 16 years, while the LTO battery maximum calendar life is only ten years. This indicates that the battery must be replaced at least once.

Transmission complexity and cost are related to the maximum input torque, gear ratio and number of gears. Regarding the additional cost to the transmission due to a two-speed gearbox in all electric vehicles, Ruan et al. [17] present an estimate of 20% based on a statistical model built from a comprehensive transmission cost dataset. This translates to a 2000 € cost margin for the electric bus in the case study in the present work.
