*2.1. BEV Energy Model*

The study utilized the Virginia Tech Comprehensive Power-Based EV Energy Consumption Model (i.e., VT-CPEM), to estimate BEV energy consumption [4]. The VT-CPEM model is a microscopic, power-based EV energy model developed to estimate BEVs' instantaneous energy consumption using vehicle operational variables, including instantaneous speed, acceleration, and grade information. The model estimates the instantaneous energy consumed (kWh), the instantaneous energy regenerated (kWh), and the final SOC of the electric battery (%). The VT-CPEM has a simple structure that allows it to be implemented in other modeling tools, including in-vehicle/smartphone applications and microscopic traffic simulation models. One of the major advantages of using VT-CPEM is that it can

capture instantaneous braking energy regeneration, which is not available in most BEV energy models. Most other BEV energy models instead use an average regenerative braking energy efficiency [15] or a regenerative braking factor that depends on the vehicle's speed [16]. However, these models cannot accurately capture the instantaneous regenerative braking energy required in this study.

Using VT-CPEM, the power at the electric motor was computed from the power at the wheels, assuming a driveline efficiency of 92% and an electric motor with an efficiency of 91%. The model also considered the power consumed by the auxiliary systems (700 W) [17]. The VT-CPEM was validated against independent data, producing an average error of 5.9% [18]. A detailed description of VT-CPEM is found in Reference [4].
