*2.2. ICEV Fuel Consumption Model*

The study utilized the VT-Micro model to estimate ICEVs' fuel consumption. The VT-Micro model uses instantaneous speed and acceleration as explanatory variables and estimates instantaneous vehicle fuel consumption and emissions. The model consists of the following form:

$$MOE\_{\varepsilon} = \begin{cases} \exp\left(\sum\_{i=0}^{3} \sum\_{j=0}^{3} L\_{i,j}^{\varepsilon} \times u^{i} \times a^{j}\right) & \forall \ a \ge 0\\ \exp\left(\sum\_{i=0}^{3} \sum\_{j=0}^{3} M\_{i,j}^{\varepsilon} \times u^{i} \times a^{j}\right) & \forall \ a < 0 \end{cases} \tag{1}$$

where *L<sup>e</sup> i,j* and *Me i,j* denote coefficients for measure of effectiveness (MOE) including fuel consumption, HC, CO, NOx, and CO2 emissions at speed exponent *i* and acceleration exponent *j*; *u* is instantaneous speed; and *a* is instantaneous acceleration rate.

The VT-Micro model utilizes a number of data sources, including the Environmental Protection Agency and Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL). Due to the simplicity and accuracy of the model, the VT-Micro model is one of the most popular microscopic fuel and emission models. A detailed description of the model is found in Reference [19].
