*1.5. Vision Enhancements*

Given that the eye is a major sensory organ in terms of providing information about the world, there is extensive current research oriented towards creating an artificial eye with "telephoto capabilities" (and research to detect energy beyond the range of our sensors). Who would benefit from such technology? Clearly the cyborg movement would benefit from providing the visual system enhanced computational abilities, but so too would the millions of people worldwide who have the advanced form of age-related macular degeneration (AMD), a disease which affects the region of the retina responsible for central, detailed vision. For such people an implantable telescope could help restore the essential visual modality [9]. In fact, in 2010, the U.S. Federal Drug Administration (FDA) approved an implantable miniature telescope (IMT), which works like the telephoto lens of a camera [9]. The IMT technology reduces the impact of the central vision blind spot due to end-stage AMD and projects the objects the patient is looking at onto the healthy area of the light-sensing retina not degenerated by the disease.

The tiny telescope is implanted behind the iris, the colored, muscular ring around the pupil and represents a tantalizing vision of our cyborg future consisting of enhanced sensory modalities. And of course, since our sense of identity is derived, among others, from sensory information—"hacking" the visual modality could potentially alter the information we use to perceive and make sense of our position in the world.

Some people appear intent on changing their senses and, by extension, their identity by becoming transhuman. For example, Neil Harbisson, who was born with a rare condition (achromatopsia) that allows him to see only in black and white and shades of grey, has become a cyborg due to necessity [15]. After viewing a talk on cybernetics, in the spirit of a hacker, Neil wondered if he could turn color into sound, based on the idea that a specific frequency of light could be made equivalent to a specific sound wave. To become a cyborg, Neil had a sound conducting chip implanted in his head, along with a flexible shaft with a digital camera on it, attached to his skull [15]. With his latest software upgrade, Neil says he is able to hear ultraviolet and infrared frequencies, can have phone calls delivered to his head, and has a Bluetooth connection which allows him to connect his "Eyeborg" to the Internet. Using "cyborg technology" Neil has created a new way of perceiving the world and has thus expanded the boundaries of human experience and interaction with the world.

### **2. Brain Enhancements and Neuroprosthesis**

Through the Restoring Active Memory (RAM) program, the U.S. defense research institute, DARPA, is funding research to accelerate the development of technologies able to address the public health challenge of helping service members, and others, overcome memory deficits by developing new neuroprosthetics to bridge gaps in the injured brain [59]. The end goal of RAM is to develop and test a wireless, fully implantable neural-interface medical device for human clinical use. A number of additional and significant advances, however, will be targeted on the way to achieving that goal; such advances may be milestones for our cyborg future.

To start, DARPA is supporting the development of multi-scale computational models with high spatial and temporal resolution that describe how neurons code declarative memories—those well-defined parcels of knowledge that can be consciously recalled and described in words, such as events, times, and places [39,59]. Researchers will also explore new methods for analysis and decoding of neural signals to understand how targeted stimulation might be applied to help the brain reestablish an ability to encode new memories following brain injury. "Encoding" refers to the process by which newly learned information is attended to and processed by the brain when first encountered. Building on this foundational work, researchers will attempt to integrate the computational models developed under RAM into new, implantable, closed-loop systems able to deliver targeted neural stimulation that may ultimately help restore memory function [59]. Interestingly, RAM and related DARPA neuroscience efforts are monitored by members of an independent Ethical, Legal, and Social Implications (ELSI) panel [60]. Communications with ELSI panelists supplement the oversight provided by institutional review boards that govern human clinical studies and animal use. Given that cyborg technology can be used for multiple purposes, this panel provides the oversight needed to monitor developments in the field.

Additional progress is being made in other areas of brain–computer interface design, Figure 1 provides a broad overview. For example, scientists have used brain scanners to detect and reconstruct the faces that people are thinking of. In one study, Yale scientists hooked participants up to an fMRI brain scanner—which determines activity in different parts of the brain by measuring blood flow—and showed them images of faces in two sets [61]. The first set established a statistical relation between the images of the faces and corresponding areas of brain activity while the second set attempted to recreate those faces from observation of brain activity alone. Alan Cowen and Professor Marvin Chun were, in fact, able to recreate images of these faces to some degree of likeness [61]. One can imagine in the future that a witness to a crime might reconstruct a suspect's face based on "extracting" the image from his mind (of course, this will raise privacy issues). However, Yale researchers pointed out that an important limitation of the technology as it exists now, is that this sort of technology can only read active parts of the brain, not passive memories.

**Figure 1.** Some basic technologies of cyborg brain enhancement.

A major advance in cyborg technology is the development of a hippocampus prosthesis, which we view as a type of cognitive prosthesis (a prosthesis implanted into the nervous system in order to improve or replace the function of damaged brain tissue) [62]. In some cases, prosthetic devices replace the normal function of a damaged body part; this can be simply a structural replacement (e.g., reconstructive surgery) or a rudimentary, functional replacement. As an important cyborg technology, University of Southern California researchers are testing the usefulness of an artificial

hippocampus which will mimic the brain's memory center [62]. The device may one-day help those with brain damage, epilepsy, and Alzheimer's disease. Additionally, the same device could, with additional developments, allow one's brain to be directly connected to the Internet which could potentially project our self-identity to the emerging Internet of Things. To create the neuroprosthesis, lead researcher Theodore Berger and his team used principles of nonlinear systems theory to develop and apply methods for quantifying the dynamics of hippocampal neurons. In this approach, properties of neurons are assessed experimentally by applying a random interval train of electrical impulses as an input and electrophysiologically recording the evoked output of the target neuron during stimulation [62]. The input train consists of a series of impulses, with interimpulse intervals varying according to a Poisson process. Thus, the input is "broadband" and stimulates the neuron over most of its operating range; that is, the statistical properties of the random train are highly consistent with the known physiological properties of hippocampal neurons. Nonlinear response properties are expressed in terms of the relation between progressively higher-order temporal properties of a sequence of input events and the probability of neuronal output, and are modeled as the kernels of a functional power series [38]. This example highlights the complexity of the engineering behind cyborg technologies designed for the brain and the importance of algorithms for our cyborg future.

Another "cyborg" brain technology is deep brain stimulation (DBS) which consists of a surgical procedure used to treat several disabling neurological symptoms—most commonly the debilitating motor symptoms of Parkinson's disease (PD), such as tremor, rigidity, stiffness, slowed movement, and walking problems [32]. The procedure is also used to treat essential tremor and dystonia. At present, the procedure is used only for individuals whose symptoms cannot be adequately controlled with medications. DBS uses a surgically implanted, battery-operated medical device called an implantable pulse generator (IPG)—similar to a heart pacemaker and approximately the size of a stopwatch to deliver electrical stimulation to specific areas in the brain that control movement, thus blocking the abnormal nerve signals that cause PD symptoms [32]. Before the procedure, a neurosurgeon uses magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) or computed tomography (CT) scanning to identify and locate the exact target within the brain for surgical intervention. Some surgeons may use microelectrode recording—which involves a small wire that monitors the activity of nerve cells in the target area—to more specifically identify the precise brain area that will be stimulated. Generally, these areas are the thalamus, subthalamic nucleus, and globus pallidus. The lead (also called an electrode)—a thin, insulated wire—is inserted through a small opening in the skull and implanted in the brain. The tip of the electrode is positioned within the specific brain area. The extension is an insulated wire that is passed under the skin of the head, neck, and shoulder, connecting the lead to the implantable pulse generator. The IPG (the "battery pack") is usually implanted under the skin near the collarbone. Once the system is in place, electrical impulses are sent from the IPG up along the extension wire and the lead and into the brain. These impulses block abnormal electrical signals and alleviate PD motor symptoms.

Additionally, the work by Professor Potter and his team [63] involving embodied networks of cultured neurons in simulation and robotic studies is relevant for our cyborg future. A "cultured neuronal network" is a cell culture of neurons that is used as a model to study the central nervous system, especially the brain. For future cyborgs, cultured neuronal networks may be connected to an input/output device such as a multi-electrode array, thus allowing two-way communication between the person and the network. Interestingly cultured neurons are often connected via computer to a real or simulated robotic component, creating a hybrot or animat, respectively [64]. Hochberg and Donoghue [65] with colleagues have created brain–computer interface technology to demonstrate that people with paralysis can control external devices by translating neuronal activity directly into control signals for assistive devices (specifically a robotic arm) [66].

Extending his original work with RFID sensors, Professor Warwick had a BrainGate interface implanted into his nervous system to link his body to technology external to his body. Most notably, Professor Warwick could control an electric wheelchair and an artificial hand, using the neural

interface [30]. In addition to being able to measure the signals transmitted along the nerve fibers in Professor Warwick's left arm, the implant was also able to create artificial sensation by stimulating the nerves in his arm using individual electrodes. This bi-directional functionality was demonstrated with the aid of another person and a second, less complex implant connecting to her nervous system. Based on Warwick's results, this was an early proof-of-concept display of electronic communication between the nervous systems of two humans.

### **3. Towards "New Senses"**

With regard to modifying and enhancing the body, can a new sense be created? In our view, new senses will certainly be developed if by "new sense" one meant to enhance a current sense in such a way that sensory information beyond the range of its sensory receptor(s) can be experienced. Substituting one sense for another is a well-researched topic and represents another way to modify the body and create a cyborg future. Increasing and/or extending the range of our senses may be desirable given we see and hear across certain frequencies, and that the eyes and ears can only detect information within a given distance to the sensory receptors. Given this explanation, Neil Harbisson already has an extra sense, thusly new states of identity for Neil are already being created. In the future, by hacking and modifying the bodies already existing senses, we may develop enhanced vision and greater sensitivity to olfactory, gustatory, or haptic information—we may even combine senses. As we create new senses for humans by the use of cyborg implants, without considering post-human levels of modification, will one's identity change? In the sense of Locke, would it even be possible for our identity not to change?

While EEG and fMRI technologies are leading to significant advances in the use of brain scans for lie detection, other research in neuroscience is more directly related to the topic of telepathic communication, a totally new mode of communication. How will telepathic communication impact one's sense of their individuality if brains are telepathically networked together? Professor Miguel Nicolelis from Duke University has developed important technology for the brain in this area that we believe is leading to a cyborg future for humanity [37]. His research is oriented toward brain-to-brain communication, brain machine interfaces and neuroprosthesis in human patients and non-human primates. Based on his studies, Dr. Nicolelis was one of the first to propose and demonstrate that animals and human subjects can utilize their electrical brain activity to directly control neuroprosthetic devices via brain–machine interfaces. As early as 2012 Professor Nicolelis speculated about the possibility that two brains could exchange information [37], and later, Nicolelis reported that his research team at Duke University Medical Center had achieved a back-and-forth exchange between two rodent brains. To test his brain interface technology, his team trained two animals to press one of two levers when an LED turned on in exchange for a drink of water. Microelectrodes were placed in each of the two animals' cortices and when one rat pressed the correct lever, a sample of cortical activity from that rat's brain was wired to the second animal's brain located in a chamber where the "it's-time-to-drink" LED was absent [37]. As evidence that information was exchanged between the two brains, the rat on the receiving end of the prosthesis proceeded to press the correct lever (to receive a drink) that had been messaged over the brain link. Summarizing the results—Nicolelis and his team provided proof-of-concept technology and preliminary results that telepathy may be possible as a future form of communication.

Related to Professor Nicolelis's work, results from studies with human subjects show that telepathy may in fact be a viable technology for the general public within a few decades (or less!). For example, using EEG technology, researchers at the University of Southampton, England, reportedly demonstrated communication from person-to-person using thought [67]. More recently, as described earlier in this paper, at the University of Washington, researchers demonstrated a working brain-to-brain interface with human subjects also using EEG technology [68]. According to the researchers, the next step is to determine *what* kind of information can be sent between people's brains.

In a study which has importance for our cyborg future, Duke University neuroscientist Miguel Nicolelis, and his team report that they have created a "sixth sense" through a brain implant in which infrared light is detected by lab rats [37]. Even though the infrared light can't be seen, lab rats are able to detect it via electrodes in the part of the brain responsible for the rat's sense of touch—so remarkably, the rats reportedly feel the light, not see it. In order to give the rats their "sixth sense", Duke researchers placed electrodes in the rat's brains that were attached to an infrared detector [37]. The electrodes were then attached to the part of the animals' brains responsible for processing information about touch. The rats soon began to detect the source of the 'contact' and move towards the signal. In addition to these important findings, the Duke scientists found that creating the infrared-detecting sixth sense did not stop the rats from being able to process touch signals, despite the electrodes (providing input for the infrared detection system) being placed in the tactile cortex. Sixth sense or not, in our view, the study by Nicolelis and his team is another step toward integrating brain–computer technology into the human body; and thus contributing to a cyborg future that will alter our senses and change our sense of identity as mere products of biology [6,37].

Additionally, in the military domain, DARPA, through funding, is trying to build "thought helmets" to enable telepathic communication using brain–computer interfaces to give soldiers extra senses, such as night vision, and the ability to "see" magnetic fields caused by landmines [39]. Finally, as another example, to create a "sixth sense", some DIY cyborgs have implanted magnets in their fingertips [69]. A cyborg with a magne<sup>t</sup> implanted in their finger, can sense magnetic fields that would otherwise be completely undetectable. The implant allows those who have received it the ability to not only sense magnetic fields, but to pick up tiny metal objects with their fingertips, and determine whether metals are ferrous. How extra senses will affect our sense of identity as a human being will be a fascinating topic of discussion in the near future.
