*2.2. Conceptual Framework*

The theory of criminological social disorganisation has motivated public health researchers to test the effect of neighbourhood disorder on the health habits of residents [22]. Recently, sophisticated methodological studies related to how people interpret and communicate in the neighbourhood environment have gained considerable attention [22,32]. Certain social and environmental characteristics may lead to residents' interactions, which can be a foundation for individual health. O'Brien, Farrell, and Welsh [22] used a meta-analysis to study the theoretical and empirical evidence of the relationship between incivilities and health according to three main approaches. They suggested a theoretical framework that connects (directly and indirectly) the aforementioned variables and represents the possible influence of the human–place bond as a mediator in this relationship. As shown in Figure 1, the current study proposes a conceptual model for examining the direct and indirect relationships between incivilities and health. Neighbourhoods lacking human–place bonds may have to cope with incivilities in physical and social dimensions [41] in order to achieve a healthy living environment. The model implies that if the neighbourhood characteristics can influence residents' health, they will possibly do so by promoting or hindering the degree of place identity and place attachment. To ground our investigation of the association between neighbourhood incivilities and health, and to examine place identity and place attachment as mediators, this study put forward nine hypotheses, as explained in detail below.

**Figure 1.** Conceptual pathways among the study variables.

### 2.2.1. Perceived Incivilities and Human–Place Bond

Neighbourhood incivilities refer to two types of incivilities, namely: (1) physical incivilities, characterised by observable incivilities (e.g., broken glass, vandalism, and litter), and (2) social incivilities, manifested by disruptive social behaviour (e.g., public drinking and lewd conduct) [42,43], which may also be seen in the physical environment. Neighbourhood incivility encourages residents to allow breaches against social order and be less likely to interfere to deter crime and incivility [44]. Residents thus tend to spend their leisure time at home, and they are unlikely to be in community relationships [45], suggesting low social regulation. Conversely, research on sense of place has provided insight into numerous meanings that people associate with their local surroundings.

Generally, sense of place is a broad attitudinal structure comprising three dimensions, namely: place attachment, place dependence, and place identity [46]. Schreyer et al. [47] and Williams and Roggenbuck [48] are the pioneers of the conceptualisation of place attachment; they determined the human–place bond in two components, namely, place identity and place dependence. Subsequent studies have revealed that affective and cognitive dimensions exist in the relationship between humans and their physical environment. Place attachment refers to an emotional bond towards places, whereas place identity refers to the self-cognition as a member of a place [49,50]. Place attachment can be described as the affective connection or bond formed between people and particular spaces where they remain and feel safe and secure [38]. Human–place bonds establish a form of "stickiness" [51], which increases the dependency and loyalty of residents to their living environment [52]. Therefore, the following hypotheses have been driven from the results of previous studies and the theoretical background.

### **H1.** *Incivility is negatively associated with place identity.*

### **H2.** *Incivility is negatively associated with place attachment.*

### 2.2.2. Perceived Incivilities and Health

Neighbourhood incivilities may discourage residents from engaging in neighbourhood spaces associated with physical and social activities concomitant with community health and wellbeing [53]. Therefore, social and environmental indicators of neighbourhood disorder are fundamentally associated with health and quality of life [34,54]. Residents suffer a burden on their wellbeing when they perceive more incivilities in their neighbourhood; by contrast, a friendlier and more supportive atmosphere can encourage residents to go out and engage in social activities [12]. For example, people may avoid green spaces that have vandalism, destroyed properties, or loitering youths [55]. In a review study, Gardener and Lemes de Oliveira [56] concluded that perceptions of the neighbourhood

play a significant role in the health and well-being of the residents, and the elderly in particular. These include fear of crime, the presence of social and physical incivilities, sense of belonging, and neighbourhood cohesion. Furthermore, improving social and physical disorders in neighbourhoods could be a pivotal strategy for improving young children's physical activity and health [57]. Therefore, the following hypothesis has been developed to test this relationship.

### **H3.** *Incivility is negatively associated with health.*

### 2.2.3. Human–Place Bond and Health

Evidence shows that place attachment is directly linked to health and wellbeing in various people, including adolescents [58], the elderly [11], ethnic groups [59], and households with different income rates [60]. The psychological literature has also found a relationship between considering an environment as an appropriate place to live in and place attachment, in which a higher place attachment is shown by those who indicate a more favourable assessment of that environment [50,61]. Place attachment is also linked negatively with depression [62]. In addition to a healthy and safe environment, aesthetic condition is associated with a stronger place attachment [63], and the perception of greater incivilities and physical degradation contributes to weaker place attachment [64]. On the basis of the above discussions, the following research hypotheses are drawn.

**H4.** *Place identity is positively associated with place attachment.*

**H5.** *Place identity is positively associated with health.*

**H6.** *Place attachment is positively associated with health.*

### 2.2.4. Potential Mediating Role of Human–Place Bonds

Extant empirical studies found that the neighbourhood environment has direct and indirect effects on residents' overall health. It seems that feeling part of the community is essential for maintaining residents' well-being, regardless of age, nationality, or income level. In their study, Ja´skiewicz and Wiwatowska [2] confirmed the mediating role of place identity in association with perceived incivilities and residents' health. Neighbourhoods with a high rate of incivility perception witness events that promote mistrust and lack of human–place bonds. The belief that other people are not trustworthy may limit social interactions between neighbours. Ross and Mirowsky [29] found that a lack of human– place bonds mediated the relationship between neighbourhood disorder and distress.

In another study by Zhang and Zhang [11], the results showed that sense of community mediated the effect of the incivilities of the neighbourhood on one's subjective health. Evans [65] concluded that a favorable neighbourhood environment could improve individuals' social interaction with people (making it easier to ge<sup>t</sup> social support from others) and lead to faster recovery from fatigue and discomfort, which could further enhance one's physical and mental health. Furthermore, similar studies concluded that the quality of public open space in neighbourhoods and shops was positively associated with human–place bonds, and could further affect one's mental health [66]. As mentioned above, the physical and social characteristics of the neighbourhood environment not only directly influence residents' mood and well-being, but also indirectly affect well-being by strengthening identification with or belonging to a residential neighbourhood [11]. Therefore, the following hypotheses are drawn based on the above discussions.

**H7.** *Place identity mediates the relationship between incivility and health.*

**H8.** *Place attachment mediates the relationship between incivility and health.*

**H9.** *The relationship between incivility and health is serially mediated by place identity and place attachment.*
