**1. Introduction**

The observation that 'insecurity is everywhere in the city of Yaoundé' was made two decades ago as part of the *Diagnostic Study of Urban Crime in Yaoundé, Cameroon* and remains relevant today [1]. According to the 2017 report of the National Institute of Statistics (INS in French), the safety situation has deteriorated throughout the country over time. From 2013 to 2016, the number of crimes recorded by the police and related to property offences ('thefts and stolen goods', 'robberies with firearms and assaults in taxis' and 'home and business robberies', etc.) rose from 29,632 to 53,142, representing an increase of approximately 80%. In the same period, crimes relating to physical injury (homicide, assault, etc.) rose from 6084 to 11944, representing an increase of approximately 96% [2] (p. 173), a figure that continues to increase in the various urban centres. This security crisis reflects the urban context in Cameroonian cities, which are marked by the proliferation of slums, increased youth unemployment, aggravation of urban disorder, the spread of informal activities, deterioration of existing urban infrastructure, etc. [3], all of which contribute to residents' fear of crime (FoC) and low quality of life. To address this scourge, State interventions have focused on increasing security equipment, including the police reform resulting from Decree No. 2002/003 of 4 January 2002 on strengthening police intervention in the fight against urban crime, creating new gendarmerie units in Yaoundé by Presidential Decree of 2 October 2001, as well as the establishment of Special Rapid Intervention Units. Most of these interventions

started in 1998 when Cameroon was preparing to apply for the hosting of the African Union summit and the security issue was a major factor in the choice of the country to host the summit. More recent actions have also been taken to install CCTV and improve public lighting at certain points considered criminogenic in urban centres. In August 2019, the political and security authorities inaugurated the CCTV command centre of the national police in Yaoundé. Despite these e fforts, the situation on the ground remains extremely worrying, raising the question of the relevance of the diagnosis and the proposed solutions. In fact, apart from the few actions listed above, the strategy adopted at the national level has not considered the role of better land managemen<sup>t</sup> in reduction of FoC.

Previous studies have demonstrated that certain defensible characteristics of space and territoriality have contributed significantly to reducing the level of perceived FoC [4] (p. 81). One of the first and most widespread studies on the subject was conducted in the 1960s under the doctrine of situational prevention, which took shape in the United States under the leadership of Jane Jacobs. Jacobs considers that safety in public space is guaranteed "when a street has what it takes to open up to the outside world, when, in this street, the public domain is clearly distinguished from the private domain and when activities, such as eyes, are su fficiently numerous ... " [5] (p. 34). According to Jacobs, therefore, the securing of a space does not depend primarily on police presence, but is held together by a complex and almost unconscious network of the population itself. She goes on to argue that a well-frequented city street is likely to be a safe street, whereas a deserted city street tends to be dangerous. Considering the example of well-lit subways, she also notes that light alone is not su fficient to guarantee safety in a space. E ffective eyes are also required. For example, in darkened theatres where eyes are present, crime is almost non-existent. Thus, according to Jacobs, the presence of 'eyes on the street' can guarantee safety and thereby reduce FoC. The link between crime and FoC is made based on the findings of numerous studies that have concluded that the higher the level of crime in a community, the more likely it is that community members tend to express a greater FoC compared to communities with comparatively lower levels of crime [6,7]. For example, using British Crime Survey data, Brunton-Smith found that recorded crime has a direct and independent e ffect on FoC at the individual level [7]. Similar results are obtained by Markowitz et al. [8] and Wyant [9]. However, by referring to the statistical data on crime and FoC in the city of Yaoundé, particularly the Central Post O ffice area, which is the largest crossroads in the city centre, the results obtained are relatively mixed. Indeed, despite being densely populated with people, activities, and even police stations, this area continues to be perceived as a dangerous space [10]. The populations of the city of Yaoundé who converge daily in the city centre to conduct their activities feel insecure in a space that would a priori be secure due to the considerable number of people, activities, and police stations; hence, the paradox of the 'eyes on the street' concept exists in the context of Yaoundé.

Overall, the study of population density as a factor influencing crime level, and therefore FoC has received considerable attention from researchers [11]. However, previous studies have had mixed results. While Schuessler [12] and McPherson [13] found a positive correlation between population density and crime level, other authors such as Kvalseth [14] found a negative correlation. More recent studies with advanced technology in data collection techniques dissociated the mobile and residential populations for more relevant analyses. Thus, by referring to the mobile population, these studies showed that these population categories had a considerable impact on crime rates [15–17]. Malleson et al. explored the impact of ambient population measures on crime hotspots in London and showed that areas that were less conducive to attracting volumes of people (predominantly residential areas) had a higher proportion of crime attractors to stimulate crime [18]. Meanwhile, at the national level, little research has been conducted on this issue [19] (p. 54) and in most of the planning documents and strategies implemented by the Ministry of Housing and Urban Development, the issue of FoC is overlooked. The purpose of this study is to analyse the paradoxical phenomenon of FoC in spaces that conform to the principles of security planning in the setting of Yaoundé city. More specifically, it aims to investigate the relationship between FoC and pedestrian density of intersection. Referring to the mixed results of previous studies, and taking into account the paradox observed in our study area, we thus postulate that: 'high pedestrian density increases FoC at a congested intersection with higher density than a certain threshold level'.
