4.4.1. Direct Effects

Table 7 shows the results of the path analysis, which was conducted to test the hypothesised direct effects amongs<sup>t</sup> the latent variables. The effect of incivility on place identity (β = −0.312, *p* < 0.01) and place attachment (β = −0.219, *p* < 0.01) was negative and significant. In agreemen<sup>t</sup> with previous studies, the results sugges<sup>t</sup> that high perceptions of social and physical incivilities were linked with a lower sense of place identity and place attachment. However, the direct association between incivility and health was insignificant (β = 0.042, *p* > 0.05). As hypothesised, place identity had a positive and significant effect on place attachment (β = 0.241, *p* < 0.01). Moreover, place identity (β = 0.128, *p* < 0.01) and place attachment (β = 0.611, *p* < 0.01) had positive and significant effects on health. Thus, participants who felt high levels of place identity and place attachment reported positively about their health. Therefore, the results supported H1, H2, H4, and H5, but not H3. The R2 value for health was 0.422.


**Table 7.** Path coefficient and hypothesis testing (direct effects).

Beta = regression weight, t values are computed through bootstrapping procedure with 265 cases and 10,000 samples; \*\* *p* < 0.05, \*\*\* *p* < 0.01.
