*2.1. Social Disorganisation Theory*

Physical and social incivilities have been widely used in research on people's assessments of crime and safety in urban areas [34]. Shaw and McKay [17] initiated a disorder model by testing the social disorganisation theory throughout Chicago. This theory focuses on the neighbourhood environment's physical and social conditions, suggesting that people avoid spaces with incivility indicators. It indicates that perceived incivilities gradually diminish the innate capacity of a group to handle behaviours. Studies on cues to care [35] and BWT support this result [36].

People feel less attached to neighbourhoods that are considered to be deteriorated or have high levels of incivility [37]. However, the extent to which perceived incivilities can reduce place attachments to the home (microscale) or the block (macroscale) is unknown [38]. Home bonds are highly valued when the local environment is seen to be deteriorating and crime-ridden. Therefore, perceived incivilities may diminish neighbourhood attachments, but leave home attachments intact or strengthen them. When people think that their neighbourhood is dangerous or undesirable, they minimise the time they spend outside and avoid public spaces, which decreases the time spent on active commuting [39,40].
