*3.1. Site Selection*

Penang was selected as the research location for this study. It is an island-state off the northwest coast of Peninsular Malaysia, and is one of the most developed Malaysian states with a population of 1.77 million [77]. This study contributes on the empirical examination and validation of social disorganisation theory by using multiple mediators. Countless aspects present across areas encompassing diverse cultures and neighbourhoods, such as physical and social factors, can be considered.

A survey conducted in Penang, Malaysia, covered a sample of 265 residents (after data cleaning) across a heterogeneous neighbourhood using a systematic sampling method. The study area is in the southeast part of Penang, Malaysia. It is built in on what used to be paddy fields in the mid-1970s, and was quickly converted into the residential neighbourhood that it is now. The location, which consists of landed properties, is a typical medium-class housing area with semi-detached terrace houses. A few condominium blocks and walk-up apartments have been constructed in the last decade at the boundaries of housing estates. This study focused on the landed properties, because they are the predominant types of dwelling in the area. This study used a systematic sampling procedure to select residents at intervals of every fourth unit in the study area.
