**1. Introduction**

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> In the past few decades, studies have identified positive and negative health determinants in urban neighbourhoods, such as physical and social incivilities, community events, and aesthetic issues. Studies have elaborated on the association between neighbourhood features and various affective variables, which can explain ties to the quality of wellbeing [1]. Neighbourhood incivility applies to features in physical and social dimensions that can indicate symptoms of a breakdown in social stability or order in neighbourhoods, resulting in a decrease in the quality of life of residents [2].

> Evidence shows that place attachment mediates the influences of the perceived physical and social qualities of the environment on the wellbeing of residents [3]. This feeling of attachment is correlated with improved mental health and is negatively associated to depression [4,5].

> Some reports have explored the influence of neighbourhood incivility on the spiritual wellbeing of residents, given the burden of neighbourhood incivilities [6], whereas others have focused on the role of the broken windows theory (BWT) [7,8]. Although the relevance of material and physical dimensions of neighbourhoods on residents' health has been generally recognised [9–11], few studies have considered the dimensions of physical and social incivilities on health simultaneously [2,12–15].

> Studies on the relationship between incivilities and social relations are inconsistent. Although several researchers have reported a negative relationship between incivilities and social ties [16,17], some have argued that impoverished neighbourhoods are positively

**Citation:** Hedayati Marzbali, M.; Safizadeh, M.; Tilaki, M.J.M.; Abdullah, A. Does Facilitating Human–Place Bonds Alleviate the Negative Effects of Incivilities on Health? *Sustainability* **2021**, *13*, 1894. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13041894

Academic Editor: Ken Tamminga Received: 28 December 2020 Accepted: 30 January 2021 Published: 10 February 2021

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correlated with social relationships. For example, studies have found that people living in disadvantages neighbourhoods earn greater social assistance and more social cohesion compared with wealthier neighbourhoods [13,18]. In a similar vein, the reports in the literature on the relationship between incivilities and health are contradictory. In the study of Robinette et al. [14], no significant relationship was established between neighbourhood incivility and health, whereas several researchers have reported that social cohesion and an improved perception of neighbourhood environment have a significant relationship with the improvement of the quality of wellbeing [19–21]. Although these studies support the relationship, existing research on the effects of neighbourhood incivilities on health remains lacking in certain dimensions. Firstly, despite attempts to investigate the effects of neighbourhood incivilities on the health of residents, empirical studies that consider the mediating roles of the human–place bond and neighbourhood relationship are lacking. Notably, mediated relationships do not recognize the direct effects of incivilities on the perceptions of residents, and do not depend on BWT. However, in the present work, if incivilities diminish the human–place bond, then the ability of socialisation to improve residents' wellbeing is decreased. This latter step is successfully captured by social disorganisation theory. This interpretation aligns with a recent study [22] that focused on the ability of a neighbourhood to self-regulate.

Furthermore, contextual factors have been investigated in previous studies, focusing mostly on only one dimension of incivility in the neighbourhood environment. Therefore, concerns emerge from casual directions that require a thorough emphasis on the physical and social incivilities of neighbourhoods. However, causal relationships between the social relationship of a neighbourhood and residents' wellbeing have not been consistently evident. Furthermore, most studies in this field of research have been conducted in non-Asian contexts. In this sense, the relationship between neighbourhood incivility and health may slightly differ in Asian contexts, especially in rapidly urbanising and multiethnic societies, such as Malaysia; moreover, variables such as human–place bonds may play a mediating role in this relationship. The level of neighbourhood incivility and residents' view of incivility may differ across nations having various ethnic groups [14], a phenomenon that will be considered in the present study sample.

Seeking solutions to strengthen human–place bonds and health in the Malaysian society is crucial because of the country's various ethnic backgrounds [23]. To address the aforementioned research gaps, the present study mainly aims to investigate the relationship between perceived incivilities and health in urban neighbourhoods. Moreover, this work assumes that human–place bonds (i.e., place identity and place attachment) may mediate the relationship between incivilities and health. Two key issues are addressed in the study, which will be presented in the conclusion. Firstly, although studies on each dimension of incivility are comprehensive, only a few have explored the two dimensions simultaneously. This problem will be discussed with a multidimensional measure of incivility (i.e., physical and social incivilities) using structural equation modelling (SEM) in this study. Secondly, by considering the mediating role of human–place bonds, this study offers further insight into the relationship between health and place.
