**3. Results**

## *3.1. LACE Process*

During the LACE experiments, the relevant process parameters such as ram force and ram speed were recorded. Figure 6 shows an exemplary diagram of the ram force and the ram speed vs. process time for a typical LACE experiment with an extrusion ratio of 11:1. At the onset of the test, a ram speed of 1.5 mm s<sup>−</sup><sup>1</sup> was used. This fast ram speed was selected for initial filling of the tool in order to counteract cooling of the tool, whereas the actual extrusion process was performed at lower ram speed. In Figure 6, a rapid increase in ram force to a force plateau of 2.6 MN is seen. The speed of the ram was reduced to a value of 0.5 mm s<sup>−</sup><sup>1</sup> after this plateau. The ram force increased further as the filling process progressed. After reaching 5 MN, the ram speed was reduced to the desired value of 0.3 mm s<sup>−</sup><sup>1</sup> for the LACE extrusion test, which resulted in a slight drop in force. The ram force then increased continuously up to the maximum value of ≈8 MN before termination of the LACE process.

**Figure 6.** Evolution of ram force during the course of a LACE process with an extrusion ratio of 11:1 and adjustments of ram speed.
