2.4.1. Kill Rates

We calculated average daily kill rates of moose by wolves (at the pack level) and bears during the study period. We estimated the variation in wolf and bear kill rates over time by calculating the average number of moose killed/day within a 7-day moving window. We then used bootstrapping to derive 95% confidence intervals. Wolves are obligate carnivores and mostly prey on moose in the study area [41], whereas bears are omnivores that use multiple food items, including moose calves in early summer [46]. Thus, we also checked for individual variation in the predation pattern of bears. In the early summer study period, i.e., the peak of the moose calving season, we summed the number of moose calves killed by each bear and calculated the average number of moose calves killed by the different sex and age categories of bears (<4 years old were considered as subadults [17]), to test for sexand/or age-related differences in kill rates by using nonparametric Kruskal–Wallis and Mann–Whitney U-tests. The moose calving season overlaps the bear mating season (see Figure 3 in [17] for a graphical description of the seasonal phenology of bears, wolves, and moose). At that time, female bears with cubs of the year have small home ranges and limited movements to avoid conspecifics [47]. Therefore, we did not visit GPS clusters of females with cubs of the year in this study to prevent their displacement. However, we visited the clusters of one female with yearling cubs in 2015 (it was included as an "adult female" in the tests, i.e., we did not have a specific "female with yearlings" category because it was only one family group).

#### 2.4.2. Scavenging Events

We defined a scavenging event as ≥1 picture of one of the large carnivores per day at a kill. We calculated the average number of scavenging events per day across all active cameras within a 7-day moving window and used bootstrapping to derive 95% confidence intervals.
