1.2.1. Electrochemical Battery Models

The electrochemical models or distributed physics-based models excel by their accuracy concerning the prediction of battery terminal output voltage, achieved by these models, but they require detailed knowledge of the battery chemical processes, which makes them di fficult to configure [21,29].

Furthermore, these models can capture the electrochemical reactions using partial di fferential equations (PDE) "that links physical parameters to internal electrochemical dynamics of the battery cell allowing trade o ff analysis and high accuracy", as is stated in [19]. A well-known early model with a high accuracy of 2% was originally developed by Doyle, Fuller and Newman, as mentioned in [3]. A big advantage of these models is that the PDE equations deal with numerous unknown parameters, are more complicated computationally expensive, as well as they are almost impractical in real-time BMS applications.
