**8. Conclusions**

A 2.6 kWp solar powered charging station for e-bikes and e-scooters has been designed and installed that o ffers AC, DC, and wireless charging. It has an integrated storage with a usable capacity of 9.5 kWh that can provide both grid-connected and o ff-grid operation using a hybrid bidirectional inverter. The station has a 48 V DC nano-grid that is used for power exchange between the PV, EV, battery, and the AC grid. The 100 W DC charging and 200 W wireless charging systems are unique in that the user can charge the e-bike without requiring an AC charging adapter. The AC charging system provides up to 3.7 kW charging power, which is su fficient for a small electric car like the Renault Twizy.

The PV orientation was optimized to a tilt angle at 51◦ and facing south to increase PV yield in the winter month of December while not compromising on the annual yield significantly (<5%). 3D modelling using Sketchup is used to determine the shading due to nearby buildings to make an accurate estimation of the yield. In the observed period of 2018/2019, 2378 kWh of PV energy is produced, which corresponded to a daily average of 6.5 kWh/day. At the same time, the seasonal variation in irradiance caused up to 25 times variation in daily yield from 0.64 kWh/day to 15.4 kWh/day.

The DC charging system uses current-mode controlled flyback converters to charge 24–48 V e-bike batteries from the 48 V DC nano-grid. A custom-designed DC cable can be used to connect the e-bike batteries of di fferent manufacturers to the station. On the other hand, the wireless charging system uses two windings on a U-shaped and V-shaped ferromagnetic core, with one placed under the tile of the charging station and the other integrated into the bike kickstand, respectively. A unique auto-resonant frequency control and amplitude shift keying modulation are implemented for misalignment tolerance and foreign object detection, which are crucial for practical usage.

The environmentally-integrated PV system cohesively integrates the mechanical, structural, and electrical components in a single unit, which saves space and provides aesthetics, modularity, safety, ergonomics, and convenience. The charging station, including its weather station, can be remotely controlled and monitored using a Raspberry Pi.

**Author Contributions:** Conceptualization, G.R.C.M., P.V.D., P.B., and O.I. Methodology, validation, formal analysis & investigation, G.R.C.M., P.V.D., F.G., and A.J. Writing—original draft preparation, G.R.C.M. Writing—review and editing, G.R.C.M., P.V.D., and F.G. Visualization, G.R.C.M., P.V.D., and F.G. Supervision, G.R.C.M., P.V.D., P.B., and O.I. Project administration, P.V.D. Funding acquisition, P.V.D., P.B., and O.I. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

**Funding:** The Delft Infrastructure & Mobility Initiative, 3E fonds, Climate-KIC funded this research. The authors thank them for their financial support.

**Acknowledgments:** The authors would like to acknowledge (in alphabetical order) Bart Roodenburg, Gireesh Nair, Harrie Olsthoorn, Joris Koeners, Miro Zeman, Sacha Silvester, Tim Velzeboer, and Yunpeng Zhao of the Delft University of Technology, the Netherlands for their technical guidance and support, and Junyin Gu from Involar for the in-kind support of hardware components.

**Conflicts of Interest:** The authors declare no conflict of interest.
