**2. Literature**

For decades researchers have been searching for variables that influence behavior and to identify the variables affecting behavior the most. Published in the mid-1970s, some of the first studies on recycling behavior include the effect of information and incentives on paper recycling amongs<sup>t</sup> resident university students [23], the effect of attitude and personality on recycling [24], the ascription of recycling behavior to ideological and demographic variables [25], and the willingness to recycle glass and paper [26]. Over the years, conflicting results were published, for example, Weigel (1977) ascribed recycling to, amongs<sup>t</sup> others, demographic variables [25], but later studies showed no direct effect of demographic variables on behavior [27–30].

In the waste managemen<sup>t</sup> domain popular theories that have been applied in an attempt to explain recycling behavior include, amongs<sup>t</sup> others, the Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA), the TPB, and Schwartz's (1977) Theory of Normative Conduct [31], to name a few. Over the years the TPB has been used in many research fields to understand behavior [32]. Examples include human health (refer to the 1996 Godin and Kok review of studies using the TPB in behavior related to health [33]), water conservation [34], and waste recycling [35–38]. Thus, a wealth of empirical data supports and contributes to the popularity of the TPB [39].

Critique against the TPB is also documented. One of the main criticisms of the TPB is that the model finds it difficult to predict behavior that is not out of choice or preference, or that requires resources and skills [40]. In addition, acknowledging that beliefs and attitudes are important; Boldero (1995) concluded that the TPB is inadequate to explain recycling behavior [41]. Ajzen and Madden (1986) noted that although a person can decide to act a certain way, the successful execution of the behavior relies on external factors such as the availability of resources [42]. If barriers that prevent the

action are removed, the action is also more likely to happen [43]. Despite being criticized [41,44], the TPB is one of the most widely-used and most-supported theories to explain recycling behavior [45–48].

#### *2.1. Theoretical Framework*

Based on the concepts explained in Dulany's Theory of Propositional Control, Ajzen and Fishbein developed the TRA, the forerunner of the TPB, with the addition of predictions of specific intentions and behavior [49]. The Theory of Propositional Control explains that behavior is not necessarily strengthened by reward or discouraged by punishment [50,51]. Rather, "people form a conscious intention [a] behavioral intention" to act a certain way [50,51] (p. 440). The behavioral intention (BI) is determined by the beliefs that a specific behavior will have a desired outcome, the value attributed to the outcome, the perception that a specific behavior will contribute to the outcome, the perception of the correctness of the behavior, and perceptions of the degree to which the specific behavior is expected [50]. In other words, people's intentions depend on their motivation to comply with what they believe is a desired action, what they feel is expected of them and "what they think they are supposed to do" [50] (p. 440). Dulany's theory of BI does not nullify the value of positive reinforcement, but emphasizes the role of people's beliefs [50].

According to the TRA, an intention to act is a precursor to the behavior related to the same act [49]. In turn, attitude towards the behavior and social pressures (subjective norm) are determining factors of the intention to perform a certain action [49]. Attitude is a personal factor which refers to a person's evaluation of the behavior. Subjective norm is a social factor which refers to the "perceived social pressure" to comply with a certain behavior, where social pressure is defined as the perceptions, beliefs, and judgments of other household members and community members related to recycling. Both attitude and subjective norm are grounded in the belief systems of a person [42] (p. 454). While subjective norms are the construct where the "influence of relevant others" are expressed [52], attitude is a more personal construct—an expression of the "self" [31].

The TPB expand on the TRA by including perceived behavioral control (PBC), which is a reflection of people's beliefs or "confidence in their ability to perform" a certain action [42] (p. 457), as well as an indication of the "available resources and opportunities" [42] (p. 459) (Figure 1). PBC has an additional effect on people's intention to act, which is independent of either attitude or subjective norm [42]. Apart from the intention to act, the executing of a behavior is also dependent on a person's perception of the ability to perform the specific behavior—how easy or difficult it is to perform the specific action. Thus, PBC exerts pressure on the intention to behave, but also independently on the behavior itself [53].

To allow comparison with similar studies conducted in developed and developing countries, and with guidance for phrasing of the construct statements of the TPB model [36,54,55], the TPB is also used in this study to explain and help understand recycling behavior in urban households in South Africa.

#### *2.2. Research Question*

This study addresses the following research question. Within the context of the status of postconsumer recycling in South Africa, which interventions at household level would be the most successful to encourage and maximize postconsumer recycling behavior in South Africa?

The subquestions interrogated in this paper are listed below.

