*3.1. Analytical Framework*

This study follows the broad definition of Reed et al. [12], who understand a landscape approach "as a framework to integrate policy and practice for multiple competing land uses through the implementation of adaptive and integrated managemen<sup>t</sup> systems". Based on a review of the literature on key aspects of the e ffective implementation of landscape approaches [12,41,42] and with special regard to the work of Sayer et al. [3], a set of four interlinked components for a successful landscape approach was synthesized3.

Governance systems lay the foundation for policy and project implementation in a landscape setting. They are highly context dependent, and their structures vary widely between landscapes. Every landscape approach should ideally be designed according to the specific stakeholder configurations and their goals and targets [12]. Therefore, already in the initiation process, implementing actors need to evaluate adequate institutional structures to address the multifunctionality of a landscape, its openness towards stakeholder participation, and guarantee transparency and compliance towards the existing rules of land use in the designated area [3]. Adaptive managemen<sup>t</sup> is key to addressing the dynamic processes within landscapes and their stakeholder configurations and to mitigating the intersectoral consequences of unforeseen changes in individual parts of the landscape [12,44]. Adequate information and communication are preconditions for stakeholders to participate and engage effectively and fulfill their roles in a landscape arrangement. Transparent communication of the aims, targets, benefits, and potential trade-o ffs contributes to stakeholders' trust in the legitimacy of the implemented approach [3]. Strengthening the capacities among stakeholders can further contribute to reducing power inequalities among stakeholders and providing knowledge for further development of the landscape. Multi-stakeholder participation and engagemen<sup>t</sup> constitute a condition for the aforementioned three components to be realized along with a base for developing general consensus and entry points for all stakeholders [3,41,42].

<sup>3</sup> This synthesis mainly draws on the work of [3,12,42] Sayer et al. [3], who developed a set of 10 principles to guide the process of decision-making and reconciling competing land uses in landscapes. Representing a consensus view of professional institutions, these principles were also discussed at the 15th meeting of the Subsidiary Body on Scientific, Technical, and Technological Advise of the Convention of Biological Diversity (CBD) and later accepted by the CBD [3,43]. Based on a comprehensive review of landscape literature, Reed et al. develop five key aspects of an effective landscape approach. Ros–Tonen et al. synthesized five preconditions and three enabling conditions for adaptive landscape approaches and applied them to analyze the landscape governance potential of co-managemen<sup>t</sup> systems for reforestation in Ghana.

In the following, these four components—governance; adaptive management; information, communication, and capacity building; and multi-stakeholder participation and engagement—will be used as analytical categories for the analysis of the potential of biosphere reserves for sustainable landscape governance and management. We thus assume that the components relate to each other as outlined in Figure 2.

**Figure 2.** Analytical framework for a study on the potential of biosphere reserves for landscape governance and management.

#### *3.2. Data Collection and Methodological Approach*

Methodologically, this analysis is based on a review of scientific work on the implementation of the landscape approach in Africa in general and on biosphere reserves in particular. The results of the literature review are summarized in Sections 2 and 4. The databases of WorldCAT, Wiley Online Library, and JSTOR were used to capture the current state of peer-reviewed literature using the key terms of this study. Moreover, online searches were conducted via Microsoft Academic Search and Google Scholar to complement the database research and to include relevant grey literature, primary sources, and non-peer-reviewed articles and books.

To supplement the literature review with practical insights and evidence, four biosphere reserves located on the African continent were empirically investigated. To select the case studies, the following criteria were considered: year of designation, ecosystem type, size of area and population, and governance and managemen<sup>t</sup> system (Table 1). With the aim of reaching heterogeneity in these criteria among the four cases and exploring a geographical spread of cases across Africa, this selection resulted in the following cases: Mount Mulanje (Malawi), Vhembe (South Africa), Lake Bosomtwe (Ghana), and Mono (Benin/Togo). In each biosphere reserve, a comprehensive semi-structured interview (SSIs) was conducted. Considering the context sensitivity of the implementation practice in biosphere reserves and the intent to add in-depth insights from biosphere reserve practitioners, qualitative enquiries were chosen. The SSI-framework was selected, as its design allows one to acquire comparable qualitative information on the topic, while the interviewer remains responsive to the interviewee [45].

Interviewees were senior managers of their respective biosphere reserves. Interviews were conducted personally or via telephone and web-based telecommunication services between January and March 2020. The interview guide (see Appendix A) was designed analogous to the analytical framework described above and encompasses five sections to capture the following aspects: (1) general aspects on the biosphere reserve's vision, mission, initiation, and design; (2) governance; (3) management; (4) multi-stakeholder engagement; and (5) information, communication, and capacity building. All respondents were assured of their anonymity.



#### **4. Analysis and Findings**
