**3. Results**

The research interactions in the CoDEC and AfriCLP projects unearthed various constraints faced in establishing cross-sector collaboration in the energy sector in Kenya. To meet this challenge, the researchers proposed transdisciplinary co-design as a collaborative approach that can enhance multi-stakeholder engagemen<sup>t</sup> and cross-sector collaborations towards access to sustainable household energy in urban informal settlements. Lessons from the CoDEC project and insights gained from the Key Informant Interviews under the AfriCLP project demonstrated the role and importance of academics in facilitating multi-stakeholder collaborations. By framing Mathare as a landscape site in this paper, we further highlight the energy challenge in informal settlements in relation to landscape governance. We thus emphasize how cross-sector collaboration is crucial for the provision of urban services in contested landscapes where various land uses compete.

The results are presented in two parts: (Section 3.1) Findings from the two-year CoDEC project, and (Section 3.2) Findings from the follow-up interviews under the AfriCLP project.

#### *3.1. Findings from The Two-Year CoDEC Energy Project (2017–2019)*

#### 3.1.1. Energy Scenario and Challenges to Sustainable Energy Transition

The baseline study revealed that 93% of the Mathare households in our survey were connected to the national grid. However, 50% of these connections were illegal and unmetered, as they were not provided directly by the legal utility provider, Kenya Power and Lighting Company. Respondents cited the high cost of legal connection and monthly charges as factors influencing their preference for illegal connections. Charcoal was the second most preferred fuel after kerosene for heating, cooking, and boiling water (see ref. [17]). Other fuels used within the settlement include liquefied petroleum gas and electricity. The price of the fuels was a major factor in determining the household's fuel preference and energy consumption. Dependence on multiple fuels was a way to make households more resilient to fluctuation in prices of charcoal, gas, and kerosene in the face of una ffordable electricity [18]. Respondents also preferred kerosene to charcoal because it is relatively clean and emits less smoke. Lack of spatial planning was evident and was cited as one of the challenges hindering e ffective service provision within the settlement. Structures are laid out haphazardly across the landscape. The development of infrastructure adds to the competing uses that put pressure on the already scarce space. The researchers estimate that only approximately 4% of the total land area in Mathare is left for movement and circulation [20]. As a result, there are limited access roads for vehicular movement. This is a challenge especially for service providers such as Kenya Power and Lighting Company, who need access into the interior areas to erect electricity poles and transformers. Accidental fires from the use of candles and kerosene stoves are a common phenomenon. The lack of access roads is a major hindrance to emergency fire response units.

## 3.1.2. Land Issues

Mathare informal settlement is a combination of private and public land. Some parts are owned by the Government of Kenya, while others are owned by private local investors. Presently, most of the residents in Mathare are tenants. In our study, 73% of the survey respondents were tenants, while 27% were structure owners. The main challenge posed by this is the lack of security of tenure as the occupiers do not have title deeds or lease letters for the land on which they live. According to Arts et al. and Heiner, Shames and Spiegel, communities are more likely to engage in pro-environmental activities and take better care of their landscapes if they have land ownership and feel a sense of belonging [14,25,35]. Due to the lack of title deeds and other land ownership rights, residents of Mathare live in fear of eviction, and therefore do little to manage or develop their spaces [23]. Customers are required to provide proof of land ownership to the utility provider for legal connection [20]. Lack of security of tenure therefore hinders Mathare residents from accessing legal power connections that would enhance their access to clean energy for cooking, heating, and lighting. As a result, the majority opt for traditional sources of energy such as charcoal and firewood whose excessive use contributes to environmental degradation, deforestation, and increased health risks because of indoor air pollution [17,18].
